Challenges and Responses, 1882-1896
Self-strengthening, 1880-1884 Consensus in 1880 to break Korea s isolation and start a moderate course of modernization Self-strengthening was only loosely coupled with the issue of concluding treaties with Western nations; goal of defending the country against Japan and Russia Creation of the Office of Management of State Affairs in 1881(T ongnigimu Amun) modeled after Chinese Tsungli Yamen) but with broader powers
The Office took over the Military Council, foreign affairs, supplies, trade, machinery, and ships Shift in China attitude: Li Hung-chang willing to assist Korea in establishing ties with the West The king did not undertake more substantial economic measures to secure revenues, for example taxing trade or lifting the ban on mining
Korea-US relations: Commodore Shufeldt s voyage to stimulate trade with Africa and Asia; Korea was included in his plans; presented letter to the Korean king via the Japanese but was rejected Li-Shufeldt negotiations in Tientsin, 1881; dependency of Korea disputed by the US (Li even did not want presence of Koreans official), but Shufeldt agreed on Korean king s letter to US president stating Korea s dependency Shufeldt Convention signed in Inch'on in 1882: Korean-American treaty provided exchange of representatives, fixed trade tariffs (10%), extraterritoriality
1882: Treaties with Great Britain (American treaty as basis plus access to three trade ports) and Germany Japanese instructor was engaged in training elite military unit (pyolgigun) in 1881 1882 Incident: soldiers riot and attack on Japanese legation in Seoul Hanabusa leaving Korea
The Chinese sent troops to Korea and Japanese Minister Hanabusa returned to Korea with warships and more soldiers: first face-off of Chinese and Japanese troops since Hideyoshi Brief return of the Taewongun to power; the Chinese brought him to China in exile
Second phase 1882-1884 Broader self-strengthening program under leadership of Min Introduction of Western technologies; specialized institutions such as Machine Hall and Mint; new army was augmented with Chinese assistance Foreign Office in place of T ongnigimu Amun (abolished by the Taewongun); foreign advisors: Moelledorff and Ma Chien-ch ang
Treaties with Russia and Italy in 1884, with France 1886 Min s one-sided reliance on the Chinese and use of self-strengthening for their own aggrandizement undermined the movement and caused a split
Kapsin coup 1884 Group of young officials (Kim Ok-kun, Pak Yonghyo, So Jae-pil) became fascinated by Japan s experiment with Western ideas; Japan as a source of inspiration, not only humiliation They studied sirhak (Pak Kyu-su) and were influenced by Fukuzawa Yukichi a great popularizer of Western ideas in Meiji Japan Kim Ok-kyun So Jae-pil
Enlightenment party, kaehwadang: for selfstrengthening and independence; inclusion of common people by providing modern education; for fundamental reform of Korea s political, economic and social structure Disillusioned with the narrow scope of Min s program; power struggle; desperate move to gain control over existing structure Coup on December 4, 1884 (Kapsin) with some Japanese legation s involvement, 14-point program: equal rights to everyone; reform of land tax system, etc.
The coup lasted three days; the Chinese intervened; reformers in exile Yuan Shih-kai, the Chinese proconsul in Korea Tientsin Convention of 1885, Li Hung-chang-Ito Hirobumi, without consultations with Koreans Yuan Shih-kai
The Tientsin Convention: Bilateral withdrawal of troops; if either side wanted to send troops to Korea had to notify the other side in advance Neither China nor Japan wanted war at this time, and the Convention was face-saving device for both sides The Min had lost their main leaders, and the reformers were in exile in Japan; the Chinese moved into the power vacuum China tried to reestablish its traditional suzerainty in the shifting regional order
Yamagata Aritomo, 1890, memorial on foreign policy: cordon of interest (Korea) and cordon of sovereignty were indispensible for Japan s self-defense and independence No military operation recommended Japan should attempt to persuade Great Britain or Germany to mediate a joint Sino-Japanese protectorate over Korea, committed to permanent neutrality (like Switzerland, Belgium, Serbia, or Luxemburg) Ymagata Aritomo
Yamagata: Were Korea to suffer the same fate as Annam (French colonization), Japan s cordon of sovereignty through the straits of Tsushima would be endangered
Tonghak 1894 Resurgence of Tonghak in early 1890s (after execution of their leader Ch oe Che-u): churches and parishes with hierarchy were established Anti-foreign and anti-yangban; many peasants lost their land Ch oe Che-u Korean village
Tonghak learning stressed the equality of all human beings The movement amounted to social revolution From 1892 the peasants started to raid government offices, killing rich landlords, merchants and foreigners The rebels confiscated their victims properties and distributed them to the poor
Chon Pong-jun, a Confucian village teacher (leader of Kobu county, Cholla Tonghak parish) led a protest which evolved into uprising Tonghak rebels defeated government troops; panic and request for help from the Chinese; truce Tonghak insurgence Chon Pong-jun
Tonghak marching orders: Do not kill or take the peasants' properties Protect the peasants' rights Drive out the Japanese and Western people and purify our sacred land March to Seoul and purge the government
Tonghak administrative offices in 53 counties in Cholla; restoring order and redressing local government abuses; social and economic reforms in coordination with central government nominally headed by Taewongun New insurgence in October after learning that pro- Japanese officials forced Taewongun out; anti-japanese righteous army Japanese suppression of the rebellion Kim Ku
Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895 The assassination of Kim Ok-kyun in Shanghai in 1894 strained the relations between China and Japan Tonghak rebellion and the involvement of China and Japan led to direct confrontation 1,500 Chinese troops were sent to Korean June 1894; several hundred Japanese marines marched to Seoul
Despite the armistice between government and rebel army (which started to disperse) Ito government sent more troops (8,000 by end of June); the rebellion might flare up again and the Chinese might take advantage (like 1882) Ito s plan for joint Sino-Japanese effort to put down the rebellion and bring change was rejected by China; Japan preparing for war Ito Hirobumi
Punch, Vol. 107, cover page, 1894 Punch Vol.107, August 4, 1894 Bear: Ha! Whichever wins, I see my way into dinner!
Punch Vol.107, December 22,1894 An Infant phenomenon : Little Jap lecturing on the Art of War to the European representatives.
Imperial Chinese soldiers in Korea, 1894
Beiyang fleet, battleship Dingyuan Japanese Imperial Navy, cruiser Matsushima
Japanese troops during the war
Treaty of Shomonoseki 1895: China recognized Korea s independence; ceded Liatong peninsula and Taiwan; Indemnity (6.4 times the annual revenue of Japan) Triple Intervention: Russia, France, and Germany forced Japan to give up Liatong peninsula, Including Port Arthur
Kabo Reforms 1894-1896 First stage: from July to October 1894, Deliberative Council passed 210 reform bills under leadership of Kim Hong-jip (moderate reformer); little interference of Japanese Second stage: December 1894 Coalition Cabinet Kim Hong-jip and Pak Yong-ho factions under the supervision of Japanese Minister Inoue Kaoru; stepping up the pace of reform Third stage: after assassination of Queen Min on October 9 1895 until February 11 1896 when king Kojong fled to Russian legation; under Kim Hong-jip and also involvement of Independence Club
Politics behind reforms Japanese plot to oust Min; occupied the royal palace on July 23 1894 and forced Taewongun to cooperate (as figurehead) Minister Otori signed alliance agreement with Korea in August Japan sent high-profile official as Minister to Korea to neutralize possible foreign intervention, Inoe Kaoru; more assertive style By the spring of 1895 a total 40 Japanese advisors, assistant advisers, and secretary-clerks were hired by the Korean government
The Triple intervention weakened Japanese influence in Korea The Taewongun approached the Japanese legation; wanted to reform the court (against resurgent Min); Miura agreed, but solicited the support of Japanese nationalists; attack of the palace on October 7 (Japanese soldiers and civilians); murder of Queen Min New Minister Komura placed priority of military and fiscal reforms
In late November 1895, Yi Pom-jin (pro-russian official) and Min group members made unsuccessful attempt to attack the palace with small force In December topknot decree stirred uproar; the righteous army attacked local offices and Japanese garrisons and cut Seoul-Pusan telegraph line February 10 1896, Russian marines moved from Inch on to Seoul; next day Kojong and his son in the Russian legation
Reforms Some 660 reform documents First objective: establish Korea s independence as a nation Second: cabinet-centered constitutional monarchy (Japanese style), cabinet with seven ministries Third: develop a sound system of fiscal management; introduction of modern taxation system
Fourth: security; police Metropolitan Police Boards and plans for units in major cities; new military system Capital and Local Garrisons Battalions Fifth: educational reform abolition of traditional service examination system; establishing or planning modern elementary schools, high schools and colleges
Sixth: modern judicial system separation of judicial and executive powers; torture on suspects and extension of punishment to family members were banned, court system Queen Min s funeral
Seventh: social reform social status system was abolished; class distinction between yangban and commoners eliminated; slavery abolished Seoul, 1895
Yangban, 1890s
Discussion group Confucianism in Korea: Define features of Confucianism in Korea. Discuss social norms and hierarchies. What is common between past and present social values? Tonghak texts: Identify ideological influences and the uniqueness of the Eastern Learning What was revolutionary in the Tonghak s agenda?
Ch oe Cheu s Incantation of Twenty-One Letters: The Ultimate Energy here and now, I pray for its great descent. Serving God, I am transformed to follow the divine will. Eternally not forgetting, I become aware of all.
Kisaeng, example of ch onmin
ID Questions 5. Tonghak rebellion 6. Kabo reforms