Carl von Clausewitz (1780-1831) Prussian soldier and German military theorist who stressed the moral and political aspects of war. War is not merely a political act, but also a political instrument, a continuation of political relations, a carrying out of the same by other means. War and Geography Where do conflicts occur? Why? What are the consequences for the environment and the nature of place. How do physical and social geography relate to the conduct of war? Boundary change: creation and dissolution of countries and empires. Identification of targets. Creation and destruction of alliances. Creation of military landscapes U.S. Navy Aircraft Carrier Tomahawk cruise missile Predator Drone 1
Predator Drone (with Hellfire missile under right wing) Principal types of war: conventional vs. non-conventional international vs. intra-national Conventional War Typically involves combat between States/nations, or some combination / alliance thereof Formal declaration of war and surrender Uniformed armed forces (for easy identification) Clearly identified front lines Clarity of winning and losing May or may not involve total war, which views civilian populations as legitimate targets Asymmetrical conflict (one side s military power is vastly superior to the other s) instigated by a State or nation or alliance that views itself as militarily superior to their adversary. William Tecumseh Sherman (1820-1891) Union general during the Civil War Early advocate of total war. Famous (or infamous) for his march to the sea (Savannah, Georgia) following the Union capture of Atlanta. I ve seen cities and homes in ashes. I ve seen thousands of men lying on the ground, their dead faces looking up at the skies. I tell you, war is Hell! Sherman s March to the Sea -- William Tecumseh Sherman (speech to the graduating class of the Michigan Military Academy, June 19,1879) 2
Sherman s Eastern Campaign Sir Arthur Harris (1892-1984) Head of RAF Bomber Command during WW II. Known as Bomber Harris to the press, and Butcher Harris to the RAF. Applied total war to the bombing of German cities. Non-Conventional War Protagonist may be a social or political movement as opposed to a territorial entity No formal declaration of war Combatants may not be uniformed (making it difficult or impossible to identify the enemy). No clearly defined front lines; indeed, confrontation can theoretically take place anywhere Lack of clarity on winning and losing Usually involves total war May involve reverse asymmetricality the inferior power attacks the superior power (as conventionally defined) Guerrilla Warfare From Spanish, little war. Term probably originated in the early 1800s pursuant to Napoleon s invasion of Spain Hit-and-run warfare performed by small groups of non-uniformed combatants (often exclusively civilians). Heavy use of ambush, sabotage, raids and surprise. In modern times, heavy use of low-caliber weaponry, mines and improvised explosive devices (IED s). No use of expensive/sophisticated weapons systems except as provided by outsiders. Usually focuses on the opponent s military as opposed to citizenry. Terrorism Actions intended to terrorize/intimidate civilians or combatants and undermine their resolve/support for a government/policy. Often carried out by hyper-committed individuals acting singly or in very small groups. Preference for low-caliber weapons and explosives. The suicide bomber as smart weapons system. Disregard for The Geneva Convention(s). Types of Intra-State Conflict Rebellion actions by which elements of a society attempt to remove a leader from office and/or force those in power to change unpopular policies. Revolution actions designed to change the very nature of a government, including existing leaders and policy (not necessarily by use of violence Czechoslovakia). Insurgency a condition of revolt against a government that is less than an organized revolution and generally non-belligerent. Insurrection a physical rising up against a civil or political authority or an established government Civil war a war between different parties, sections, or nations of a country to achieve control or secession. 3
Categories of Conflict Resolution Bilateral negotiations vs. Trilateral negotiations Bilateral negotiations: opponents work things out among themselves, typically beginning with diplomatic channels, leading to endorsement by the respective government, and culminating in treaty-signing. Trilateral negotiations Opponents use a third party Good Offices provision of a neutral site and possibly facilities and personnel Conciliation passive participation, as by listening to the parties and offering compromise solutions Mediation active participation leading to a formal proposal for resolution Arbitration negotiations leading to a formal ruling which, by prior consent of the parties, may be either binding or advisory. Judicial proceedings resolution in a trial-like manner before a mutually recognized legal authority, leading to a (theoretically binding) decision. Geneva Home of the International Red Cross and other international agencies European headquarters of the United Nations Home of the former League of Nations Major city of an historically neutral country. United Nations offices in Geneva (Former headquarters of The League of Nations) The Geneva Convention(s) Four international treaties/agreements that constitute a body of international law regarding warfare First Geneva Convention (1864) for the amelioration of the condition of the wounded and sick in armed forces in the field Second Geneva Convention (1906) applies the First Geneva Convention to shipwrecked members of armed forces at sea. Third Geneva Convention (1929) pertains to treatment of prisoners of war. Fourth Geneva Convention (1949) pertains to treatment and care of civilians during time of war. The whole set is often referred to as The Geneva Convention 4
The Peace Palace Home of the International Court of Justice The Hague, Netherlands International Criminal Court The Hague, Netherlands (Temporary quarters, left; planned facility, below) International Court of justice the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands. Its main functions are to settle legal disputes submitted to it by States and to provide advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorized international organs, agencies, and the UN General Assembly. International Criminal Court a permanent tribunal to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression. Headquartered in The Hague, but proceedings can take place anywhere. In an increasingly interdependent world, countries increasingly have too much to lose by going to war. One result is a growing importance of Conflict Avoidance and Resolution International Law a complex body of treaties, principles, judicial decisions, customs, practices and writings that are theoretically binding on States in their mutual relations Conventions multi-lateral treaties that, if ratified, are binding on the signatories and become part of international law. (Kyoto Convention) Sanctions any number of penalties imposed on a country for breaking international law, typically having the effect of isolating the offender-state. The Military Landscape Military bases National training centers Bombing ranges and weapons testing centers National Military Parks Historic Fortifications Military manufacturing plants 5
4/13/2011 Examples of Special purpose districts Voting districts Interstate Compacts School Districts Public lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), mainly for grazing National Parks, Monuments, Historic Sites and Recreation Areas National Forests and National Grasslands National Wildlife Refuges, National Scenic Rivers, Wilderness Areas and Outer Continental Shelf Nellis AFB and Area 51 SR-71s at Nellis AFB LANDSAT Images g of Nellis AFB 6
Make-believe town, Ft. Irwin Ft. McHenry, Baltimore 7
Gettysburg National Military Park Preserved Frontier Outpost Fort Davis National Historic Site Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument 8
Castle Clinton National Monument The Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor in flight, and under construction in Marietta, Georgia U.S. Defense Budgets in recent Years 9