Article information: Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by Emerald Author Access

International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care Emerald Article: Empowerment as a tool for a healthy resettlement: a case of new African settlers in South Australia Lillian Mwanri, Kiros Hiruy, Joseph Masika Article information: To cite this document: Lillian Mwanri, Kiros Hiruy, Joseph Masika, (2012),"Empowerment as a tool for a healthy resettlement: a case of new African settlers in South Australia", International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care, Vol. 8 Iss: 2 pp. 86-97 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17479891211250021 Downloaded on: 03-07-2012 References: This document contains references to 42 other documents To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by Emerald Author Access For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. Information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information. About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com With over forty years' experience, Emerald Group Publishing is a leading independent publisher of global research with impact in business, society, public policy and education. In total, Emerald publishes over 275 journals and more than 130 book series, as well as an extensive range of online products and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 3 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. *Related content and download information correct at time of download.

Empowerment as a tool for a healthy resettlement: a case of new African settlers in South Australia Lillian Mwanri, Kiros Hiruy and Joseph Masika Lillian Mwanri is based at the Discipline of Public Health, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia. Kiros Hiruy is based at the Institute for Regional Development, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia. Joseph Masika is a Team Leader, Community Development Team, Intercountry Services, Statewide Services Directorate, Families SA Department for Education and Child Development, Government of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia. Abstract Purpose The purpose of this paper is to describe the application of empowerment and the role that it plays in fostering community participation, community integration and in enabling a healthy re-settlement of culturally and linguistically diverse migrants who have recently arrived in Australia from Sub Saharan Africa. Design/methodology/approach The paper s approach is a discussion expressing the views of authors supported by the relevant literature drawn from a wide range of sources on migration, settlement, health, social, environment, cultural and public health issues. The African community and its peak organisation, the African Communities Council of South Australia is presented and various empowerment strategies used by the council are discussed as a healthy model for empowering new settlers in the new environment. Findings The first part of the paper describes the migration of African migrants in South Australia and sets the scenario describing the current state of these migrants including opportunities and challenges they face in the new environment. The second part describes theories and contexts of community empowerment, relationship between community empowerment and a healthy settlement; and the relevance and implications of community empowerment. The third part draws the above context and the empowerment strategy is specifically related to the African Community in South Australia. The empowerment strategy in this case represents a wide range of interventions aimed to equip new African migrants to a successful and a healthy resettlement and integration in South Australia. y addressing a wide range of settlement challenges and issues, the strategy employs concepts of empowerment that have been used in public health in general, health promotion, health education, communications, community engagement and community development. Originality/value The paper highlights challenges and opportunities for new migrants in the new environment and argues that community empowerment is an important enabling tool for a healthy settlement, particularly for people with refugee backgrounds. The paper also acknowledges that the community development approach has assisted the target group and has improved their ability to overcome challenges associated with settlement through capacity building, social capital and community connectivity. Keywords The African community, Empowerment, Community development, New settlers, Communities, Immigrants, Australia, Public health Paper type Conceptual paper Introduction Australia is one of the most culturally diverse populations in the world, and the population continues to grow in diversity of language, religion, history, and country of origin (African Communities Council of South Australia (ACCSA), 2010). The past two decades have seen a steady flow of African migrants into Australia and communities are progressively being formed. In 2006, a total of 248,699 people born in Africa were living in Australia (Hugo, 2009; Department of Immigration and Citizenship, 2011). This figure represents 5.6 per cent of Australia s overseas-born population and around 1 per cent of the country s total population (Department of Immigration and Citizenship, 2011). Since then, around 50,000 more PAGE 86 j j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MIGRATION, HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE VOL. 8 NO. 2 2012, pp. 86-97, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1747-9894 DOI 10.1108/17479891211250021

migrants born in Africa have arrived in Australia. Approximately 20,000 Africans are estimated to live in South Australia (ACCSA, 2010; Department of Immigration and Citizenship, 2011; Hugo, 2009). A large proportion of recently arrived Africans in Australia have been re-settled under the humanitarian program and they comprise a significant and often very visible and socioeconomically deprived component of the Australian demographic. African migrants especially those with refugee backgrounds experienced significant traumatic events before arriving in Australia, and many have little other than the experience of conflict, loss and deprivation (ACCSA, 2010). On arrival to Australia, significant settlement challenges coupled with backgrounds of being refugees negatively affect their settlement in their new home. Some settlement challenges including the language barrier, isolation, social dislocation, and alienations have been identified as significantly impacting on the quality of life of these new migrants (ACCSA, 2010). They also face significant poverty and many have no education or have lower education when compared to other non-refugee migrants and the general Australian population. Poverty, low education and unfamiliarity with new environment are prohibitive factors that limit their life choices and can make successfully healthy resettlement in a new environment hard to achieve. ecause of these challenges, it is plausible to argue that African migrants resettling in South Australia need supportive and enabling programs to address these issues in order for them to have healthy settlement experiences in Australia. Failure to healthy settlement into the Australian community, there may be a creation of different and unequal classes of new comers against the general community. In a longer term, this may lead to tension and conflicts that could have significant impact at different levels including the local level, the broader societal level and can ultimately undermine social cohesion and the ability to achieve and maintain an inclusive democracy. From the health perspective, the unmet settlement needs may result in poor health outcomes and poorer quality of life when compared with the general Australian population. The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion encourages implementation of empowerment strategies to enhance individual and collective health of all citizens (World Health Organisation (WHO), 1986). This paper describes an empowerment strategy and its application in the success of the settlement of new African settlers in South Australia. Empowerment and its importance in fostering community participation, and as a social protective and positive driver for healthy settlement is emphasised. Finally, an African Organisation in South Australia, the ACCSA is presented as a case study of the empowering organisation for the African community in South Australia. The African community in South Australia Several definitions of a community exist and the African community in South Australia fulfils necessary elements that characterise a community (Klein, 1968; Steuart, 1978; Sarason, 1984). These elements include: Having a community organisation that consists of members identifying with it. Having similar languages, ethnicities, rituals, and ceremonies. Having shared values and norms. Having mutual influence, i.e. community members have influence and are influenced by each other and there exists a sense of togetherness, experiences, and seeking mutual support. Having shared needs and commitment to meeting them. Having commonalities including shared emotional connections, for example, members share common migration history by being people of Africa descent. Community members also face similar settlement challenges and the need for social capital development including to maintain cultural networks. This definition of community is important for the current paper because a community empowerment approach within the settlement framework will be presented. VOL. 8 NO. 2 2012 j j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MIGRATION, HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE PAGE 87

Community empowerment: theories and contexts Empowerment is one of the important pillars in development and it has been used in many disciplines including health (WHO, 1986; aum, 2008), education (Wallerstein and Edwards, 1988) and in political, gender, economical and community development (Laverack, 2009; Tesoriero, 2010). In the most general sense, empowerment refers to the ability of people to gain understanding and control over personal, social, economic, and political forces in order to take action to improve their life situations (WHO, 1986; Minkler, 1989; aum, 2008). As a significant public health concept, aum (2008) describes empowerment as the ability of people to gain understanding and control over personal, social, economic, and political forces in order to take action to improve the healthy living. As a methodology and the theory, community empowerment has developed significantly in the past three decades. It is described to comprise both processes and outcomes (Israel et al., 1994; Tesoriero, 2010) which themselves may lead to community development. Empowerment has also been categorised as a multi-level construct and include individual level, organisational, and the community level empowerment. At the level of individual, psychological empowerment describes a concept that extends intrapsychic self-esteem to include people s perceived control in their lives, their critical awareness of their social context and their participation in changes (Israel et al., 1994). As Gershon (2006) argues, an empowering organisation incorporates the processes of organisation and provides avenues for the development of personal control, including competence to act and the development of interpersonal, social, and political skills. It is also acknowledged that an empowering organisation is democratically managed, in which members share information and power, utilize cooperative decision making processes, and are involved in the design, implementation, and control of efforts toward mutually defined goals (Zimmerman, 2000; Gershon, 2006). The above attributes reinforce the notion that organisations empower individuals as part of the organizational process. An empowering organization recognises and incorporates necessary linkages among members, such as interest groups, status groups, and formal subunits. Additionally, an empowered organization also has influence within the larger system of which it is a part. Thus, empowerment at the organizational level incorporates both processes that enable individuals to increase their control within the organization, and the organization to influence policies and decisions in the larger community. The concept of the organization as both empowered and empowering helps provide the link between the organization level and the individual and community levels of empowerment. At the community level, an empowered community makes it possible for individuals and organizations to apply their skills and resources in collective efforts to meet their respective needs. As such an empowered community has the ability to influence decisions and changes in the larger social system. raithwaite and Lythcott (1989) support this argument and describe that empowerment at the community level is connected with empowerment at the individual and organizational levels. In practical sense, and as McMurray (2007) states, empowerment brings back power to the people by improving people s participation, increasing individual and community control over various programs that impact their development and also improves a sense of local ownership and collaboration. raithwaite and Lythcott (1989) further describe that empowerment increases control by marginalized people and influences their development in a positive way by reducing inequities and increasing the level of decision making and subsequently access to services including development opportunities explains the concept of empowerment within a community development context and asserts that empowering community provides the most effective means of collectively providing the support and control needed to develop resources, skills and changes for individuals, organisation and the community at large (Tesoriero, 2010). This process thus enhances collective problem-solving capabilities and increases influence and control over resources. Relationship between the community empowerment and healthy community settlement We argue that, a healthy settlement is associated with collective political and social actions and the gaining of control over resources, all of which ultimately are associated with improved PAGE 88j j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MIGRATION, HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE VOL. 8 NO. 2 2012

socioeconomic development. Laverack (2009) informs how community empowerment may address community development using the community development continuum model that progresses across all the aforementioned levels of empowerment. As stated previously, it begins with personal empowerment, followed by creating a sense of community through the development of small mutual support groups, community organizations, issue identification and campaigns, then participation in organizations and coalitions. As Zimmerman (2000) and Wallerstein and ernstein (1994) allude, empowerment is contextual and population specific. Similarly, Israel et al. (1994) support this assertion and add that, for empowerment to be a meaningful concept, the cultural, historical, social, economic, and political context within which individuals and groups exist must be recognized. Larrea and Kawachi (2000) reinforce these assertions and add that empowering organisation must realise this concept and create strategies that can lead to community development through agreed community activities. In supporting Nutbeam and Harris (2004), Laverack (2009) describes that addressing these issues requires empowering the community through empowerment continuum model which comprises the following domains: Working with existing community structures, e.g. small community organisations, youth groups, women groups, men groups, and others. Mobilizing community groups and leaders to recognize and demand development especially in specifically small communities and expanding their social networks. Working on specific issues, and as the community becomes more empowered linking with other groups to take wider actions and eventually engage in collective social actions, which can change the situation; and in the context described here, the settlement challenges. The relevance and implications of community empowerment As aforementioned, community empowerment is widely accepted as an effective development strategy in many aspects including health and education. For example, The WHO (1986) through the Ottawa Charter identifies strengthening of community actions through empowerment as an important health promotion strategy. It was also previously outlined in the Alma Ata Declaration (1978), through one of the primary health care principles that community participation is the core element to any health promotion strategy. Further evidence on community empowerment approach in improving health and social outcome exists (Seligman, 1975; Seeman and Seeman, 1983; McKnight, 1985; Albee, 1986; Wallerstein, 1992; aum, 2008; Talbot and Verrinder, 2010). Tesoriero (2010) informs that as a process, empowerment encourages participation of the affected group, to be able to identify their needs and generate their own solutions and as an outcome, it leads to the collective achievement of social actions and therefore addressing their own needs. Empowerment improves people s participation, increases individual and community control over various programs that impact their health and wellbeing and it also improves the sense of local ownership and collaboration; and therefore ensures sustainability of developed programs. Empowerment is concerned with increasing in power of marginalized people and influences their health in a positive way by reducing health inequities and increased access to services. Community empowerment and healthy settlement For healthy settlement, community empowerment must comprise social protective factors including community-building dimensions that engage in trust building, getting to know each community member and supporting each other in a wide range of issues. Community empowerment includes the process of leading people to perceive themselves as able and entitled to making decisions, which include the choice to participate in activities that lead to individuals and community development. As such, individuals and organizations within an empowered community, provide enhanced support for each other, address conflicts within the community, and gain increased influence and control over the quality of life. As Larrea and Kawachi (2000) argue, empowerment must aim at developing a responsive community, interpersonal skills, and consciousness, power sharing, equality, respect, and helping VOL. 8 NO. 2 2012 j j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MIGRATION, HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE PAGE 89

people to gain knowledge necessary to take control of their own life. Skills, knowledge, power, and responsible behaviours have been identified as important factors on addressing disadvantages (WHO, 1986; aum, 2008; Tesoriero, 2010). Furthermore, Fotso and Defo (2006) describe empowerment as a means of reducing disadvantage as it helps communities economically in accessing resources including, financial and human resources. It is a common knowledge that many Africans resettling in Australia endure challenges related to reasons including being populations with refugee backgrounds, past experiences of civil unrest and settlement challenges in a different environment. A review by the Australian Human Rights Commission (2010) on social and inclusion issues titled In our Own Words revealed that the vast majority of African Australians feel that having a visibly different appearance impact upon their everyday life experiences. For these and other reasons, African community empowerment is necessary in order for them to have control of their life including participation in decision making in their new country and to feel connected with each other and the general community. Community empowerment and the African Communities Council of South Australia For the past 12 years, the ACCSA, a peak body for organisations and African communities in South Australia has dedicated to developing the African community-driven healthy settlement agenda and preparing and advocating for the community to be a model for the healthy settlement in Australia (ACCSA, 2010). ACCSA comprises 42 ethnic African organisations and community groups from 18 sub-saharan countries living in South Australia (ACCSA, 2010). ACCSA represents the interest and wellbeing of these cultural groups and provides linkages between them, the government and other organisations providing services to the African community. Executive Committee of the ACCSA comprises leaders of each community including, the Republic of South Sudan, urundian, Rwandan, Congolese, Ethiopian, Somalian, Togolese, Liberian, and Sierra Leonean. Aims and objectives of the council include To provide a service that assists the settlement and welfare needs of individuals and families of African communities, particularly new arrivals to SA. To promote cultural diversity through linkages and cooperation between the member organisations of the council and between the council and other organisations, groups and communities in SA. To assist the social and cultural settlement of individuals and families of member organisations, groups and communities through education, and information on the diversity of the heritage and the culture of different groups in the council. To promote peace, harmony, and cooperation amongst all groups and African communities in SA. To utilise resources for the purpose of furthering the aims and objectives of the council. To develop African refugees capacity to achieve their aspirations and contribute to social, cultural, and economic development in SA. To support the engagement of a broader community to participate in understanding and inclusion of new arrivals to the main stream in their new home. ACCSA s strategy is to involve all communities and organisations in settlement, integration and community development programs and activities to ensure healthy settlement for members of its organisations and community groups. Aided by funding from a wide range of Commonwealth Government, State Government agencies and other sponsorships and donors, ACCSA operates programs and projects to address a wide range of issues that affect its members and may prevent them from achieving a healthy settlement in South Australia. For program operations, consideration is given to a range of issues including general settlement, health, education, culture, intergenerational conflict, gender, legal, and community development. Programs that have been implemented in the past ten years address a variety of issues including: PAGE 90j j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MIGRATION, HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE VOL. 8 NO. 2 2012

General settlement program Through the Settlement Grant Program, funded by the Australian Government Department of Immigration and Citizenship, ACCSA provides services to newly arrived individuals/families who are permanent residents and have been resettled under the humanitarian program. ACCSA services address important issues necessary for a healthy settlement. ACCSA services include: orientation, information on a wide range of issues, referrals and advocacy on issues such as housing, health care, education, social assistance, and immigration advice. ACCSA has developed partnerships with a wide range of stakeholders from mainstream services and programs in South Australia. Such stakeholders include: the South Australian Police, The Migrant Resource Centre of South Australia, Relationship Australia (multicultural services), Migrant Health Services and Survivors of Torture and Trauma Assistance and Rehabilitation Services, Multicultural Youth of South Australia, and General Practice Networks. Health Due to poverty, migration backgrounds and limited education, new humanitarian African settlers have limited health literacy and this is a risk to an effective and healthy settlement. Health illiteracy can lead to a failure in accessing services including those provided by healthcare system in Australia and may lead to poor health outcomes. Funded by both the Australian Government and the State Government, ACCSA implements programs to address serious emerging health issues within its members: an example of these include the Physical Activity and Nutrition Program which addresses poor dietary patterns and physical inactivity, issues identified as necessary due to high prevalence of obesity and related chronic disease such as diabetes and cardiovascular conditions in this community. Rapid lifestyle changes due the exposure to the abundance of relatively inexpensive food, sedentary lifestyle related to ease of availability of labour saving devices, and increasing use of tobacco, pro-obesity cultural values and the lack of nutrition knowledge make individuals, families and communities highly vulnerable to chronic disease. ACCSA has created links with various government departments, local government bodies, non-governmental organisations and mainstream service providers to address these issues. Other health programs including cervical awareness project for women aged 18 þ years and a project to prevent binge drinking in young people have also been implemented to address relevant issues identified by communities. To improve access to practical health education, information and training, ACCSA organises for communities to receive health information that is culturally and linguistically appropriate. Further services include the provision of information on sexual health and information on how to access various services including mainstream and cultural specific services. ACCSA also has an advocacy strategy to assist local governments to be more proactive in engaging with African communities settling in their areas, linking them with local health services and networks, and supporting them to develop projects in collaboration with these communities. In addition, ACCSA advocates for the health sector, especially community health and mental health services and hospitals, to employ African workers in the health sector. ACCSA is also addressing other social determinants of health including racism, prejudice, misperceptions about Africans through cross cultural awareness training for mainstream health services including community health centres. Other issues including training on the use of interpreters and the need for culturally sensitive reception services are being developed. ACCSA recognises that improving the knowledge of African migrants about the South Australian health system and how to access the information is one of the most important aspects of achieving a healthy settlement. Education ACCSA acknowledged the fact that many humanitarian entrants in South Australia have missed significant educational opportunities because of civil unrest in the country of origin and destructed educational opportunities in refugee camps. To address the education issue, ACCSA advocates for more support for vulnerable humanitarian entrants especially teenagers and children who without interventions, may be placed in classes according VOL. 8 NO. 2 2012 j j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MIGRATION, HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE PAGE 91

to age which is the Australian way of placement in schools. ACCSA supports the South Australian New Arrival program for metropolitan schools which places individuals (17-19 years) in special English classes for a set period of time before, being placed into mainstream public schools. ACCSA has a community centre where young people can access computers and be assisted with school activities including homework, information and technology and English language. Employment and training African community members find it hard to find employment on arrival. Some of the barriers faced by these populations include: lack of recognition of overseas qualifications, lack of references in Australia, and lack of support to transition into work experience programs. ACCSA recognises that employment is a significant determinant of health and realises that coupled with the multitude of socioeconomic and cultural impacts of unemployment and/or underemployment, many African community members are at an enhanced risk of the decline in confidence and self-esteem. These complex issues can lead to depression, sense of alienation, absolute poverty, and family breakdowns (Wilkinson and Marmot, 2005; Hogbin, 2006). ACCSA has a program that provides information about employment options and provides workplace experiences for individuals and working learning programs for young people. ACCSA also recognises that it is difficult obtaining a driver s licence needed for employment opportunities. As such, it organises for its community members who need a driver s licence to obtain driver training in order to obtain licence. Our experiences show that gaining a driver s licence often enhances their chances for employment. ACCSA has also been instrumental in developing African enterprise for people with refugee backgrounds. There has been a positive trend of establishment of businesses in South Australia including small remittance businesses, restaurants, and shops owned by Africans in recent years. To ensure that new African settlers understand Australian workplaces rules and principles, ACCSA runs programs about the Australian workplace, workplace laws including equal opportunity and anti-discrimination laws. Cross cultural awareness training is also provided to mainstream systems including non-governmental organisations, local governments and government departments to improve service delivery to migrants and refugees in their employment endeavours. Family values African families are very hierarchal with children and younger people expected to respect elders. Due to cultural differences, children growing up in Australia have adapted the Australian way of life and at times find it difficult following their parents culture. As Lansford et al. (2004) allude, intergenerational conflicts associated with cultural differences between parental expectations and children s wishes can lead to grief and loss, post traumatic stress, family breakdown, isolation and lack of connectedness between parents and their children. ACCSA realises that there has to be a balance and a middle way between the parents culture and the children s culture. ACCSA conducts a variety of workshops for young people about their history and culture and the need to feel comfortable about their heritage. Additionally, ACCSA supports different community and cultural organisations to conduct language classes for young people in order to maintain their traditional languages and culture. As it supports Wilkinson and Marmot (2005) in recognising the importance of social support and networks as important social determinants of health, ACCSA provides supports to ensure that family/social networks are maintained. Family, gender roles and women It is well acknowledged that many sub-saharan countries where African populations come from exhibit significant gender inequalities (United Nations, 2000) with distinct customs that dictate adult males to be the main family providers. In Australia a number of African adult males are unemployed which makes them feel lost as their provider role diminishes. The negative impact of unemployment on individuals health is well recognised (Wilkinson and Marmot, 2005), and the loss of the role can lead to male assuming antisocial behaviour (e.g. drinking) to fill the void. Consequently, women s role in Australia PAGE 92j j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MIGRATION, HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE VOL. 8 NO. 2 2012

changes and some women assume equality between them and their male partners. This shift of role occurs rapidly and becomes a threat to men who have traditionally been the main bread winners and assumed a high authority in the family. The Millennium Development Goals (United Nations, 2000) inform that gender equality and the empowerment of women are effective ways to combating poverty, hunger, and disease and to stimulate sustainable development. ACCSA acknowledges the need to address gender inequality among African migrants and provides a program with a range of women empowering activities to improve gender equality in the community. The program aims to build confidence and self-esteem for women. Activities involved in the program include training to raise awareness about what constitutes acceptable behaviours and what they can do to make favourable changes to minimise abuse or domestic violence. The program also develops women to change from being followers to being leaders, including participation in decision-making processes. Education is also provided to men about the cultural shifts within the African community. They are informed regarding gender roles, what constitutes acceptable behaviours, respect for each others view, open and effective communication, transparency especially in effective and equitable spending of family money and mediation. These values are promoted by community leaders and it has been observed that despite the cultural belief that signifies men to be superior, the gender equality program has proved to strengthen and enhance the families rather than dividing them. Housing Housing or shelter is one of the most basic needs of human existence and according to Wilkinson and Marmot (2005), a significant social determinant of health. Africans find it difficult to access safe, affordable and suitable housing because of large family sizes, a lack of rental history and high unemployment/underemployment (which means, existing on social benefits). ACCSA recognises the barriers and addresses them through education of landlords, education for the African community members about their rights and obligations as tenants, in addition to issues related to reporting of discrimination. Additionally, ACCSA addresses the housing issues through pathways to affordable housing ownership. ACCSA has also established the African Communities Housing Committee, an advocacy sub-committee that advises and links the clients with Housing SA and other housing agencies in order to improve access to healthy options of housing by members of the African community. Together with housing providers, the committee has addressed issues including: developing a strategy to assist the African community access affordable housing, advising in relation to signing contracts, assisting in overcoming language barriers, providing information about housing availability, including the size of the house (to cater for larger families), costs, and location including proximity to public transport. The committee lobbies to Housing SA to reinstate African refugees as a priority group for public housing, particularly sole parents and the need for public housing to respond to unique needs of these new settlers. Identity and integration ACCSA strives to promote African culture and heritage in Australia. As such it has a range of activities including the annual African festivals where participants from African communities and organisations show case their culture in a variety of ways including singing, traditional dances, food, and artefacts. It also provides cross cultural community development initiatives that provide forums for different ethnic groups to come together to support each other s development. ACCSA also has a variety of sports activities including soccer tournaments where different African communities compete and the winner receives a trophy. Law, police, and social order ACCSA works very closely with the South Australia police and the legal system. It strives to raise awareness of the legal and justice systems in South Australia and it conducts education sessions to its community members regarding legal issues including on family law, etiquette to driving, including consequences of driving without a licence and driving an unregistered vehicle. ACCSA has also seen a recruitment of the African Police Liaison Officer who acts as a conduit between the South Australian Police and the African community. ACCSA realises the VOL. 8 NO. 2 2012 j j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MIGRATION, HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE PAGE 93

importance of building trust between the police and the African community. To reinforce the development of trust between these two parties, ACCSA has organises soccer matches between the SA Police and the African young people. Sports have been a good avenue for raising awareness of significant issues related to law, police and social order. The recruitment of African Police Liaison Officer and sport activities have been instrumental in developing Africans, especially the youths in areas of legal system. Leadership and governance ACCSA developed leadership training programs for African community leaders targeting women, men, and young people. These programs are necessary because ACCSA recognises the importance of the role and responsibilities of leaders in empowering and developing their communities. ACCSA constitution articulates the need for a representation of different groups across the community including adequate females on management committees. ACCSA is also committed to a democratic governance and the rule of law. As such, it has a plan which addresses the democratic representations in a variety of initiatives. ACCSA acknowledge that a good leader possesses qualities including listening skills, respect for others even those with dissenting views, integrity and transparency, patience, humility, good communication skills, and having a vision upholding democratic governance. Participation in local government African Representation within local governments and local councils is one of the objectives of ACCSA. ACCSA works with various local councils in order to promote community issues and activities as well as to build relationships and develop partnership and an understanding of issues including available education and community services in the local area. Local government are considered the first point of contact for information for communities including networking and community outreach programs. Local councils with high concentrations of new arrivals from African countries are known to ACCSA and have been identified by leaders and community members. The building of relationships and understanding of a wide range of issues are necessity for a healthy resettlement. Similarly, ACCSA has developed education program for community members on roles and functions of local governments and the ways under which to engage with these local authorities. Identification of barriers to participation is conducted during such education programs. Discussion and conclusion Empowering involves active participation of individuals and groups in shaping and altering the socio-environmental issues and context (Parker et al., 2001). Empowering embraces participation but it also expands behavioural emphasis to incorporate notions of trust, connectivity, and civic engagement. The concept of participation creates a multilevel link including the individual, the organisation and the community level. Additionally, evidence supports community participation as an important predictor of positive social and health outcomes (Wilkinson and Marmot, 2005). ACCSA represents an example of an empowering organisation that strives to develop the community through the empowerment continuum model (Larrea and Kawachi, 2000). ACCSA recognises the existence of small community groups and organisations and work with them. It also mobilizes the whole of African community groups and leaders to address specific issues and establish intergroup linkages in order for the community to engage in collective social actions which can change the situation and address settlement challenges including isolation, health problems and other social issues (Chavis et al., 1987; Parker et al., 2001; Wilkinson and Marmot, 2005; aum, 2008). With the recognition of socioeconomic vulnerability factors associated with being new migrants and/or refugees in the new environment, ACCSA realizes that social protective factors, as a broad term, would include many parallel actions that would build the community capacity, community empowerment, community competence, social cohesion, community health literacy and social capital. ACCSA recognises that, together, these factors will reduce inequity, strengthen social cohesion and lead to a healthy settlement for the African community in South Australia. y reducing inequities, social protective factors would PAGE 94j j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MIGRATION, HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE VOL. 8 NO. 2 2012

enhance the capacity for individuals and communities to address settlement challenges and adversity, even in the face of concentrated disadvantaged or poverty. Addressing these factors has been recognised as an important pathway of dealing with social determinants of health (Wilkinson and Marmot, 2005). ACCSA acknowledges that social capital comprises features of social organisation (networks, trust, and norms) (Putnam, 1996; aum, 2008) and resources stemming from the structure of social relationships that facilitates achievement of a specific goal (Coleman, 1988) of healthy settlement. y capitalising in this, ACCSA acts as a conduit between the cohesive African community (maintaining networks and togetherness, improving social protective factors) and the outside world (i.e. service providers, government, sponsors, and other important bodies) to ensure that the African community continues to be empowered and takes control of its situations. The WHO (1997) recognises community empowerment and social capital as necessary tools for individuals, communities, and organisations to gain mastery of their lives in the context of changing their social and political environment and to improve equity and quality of life. It is plausible to argue that ACCSA implements community capacity building elements, and to conform to Goodman et al. (1998) emphasis, it focuses on necessary dimension including active participation, leadership, reflection, sense of community, understanding the history, articulation of values and access to power. The programs that ACCSA develops and implements aim to address these and ultimately achieve the overall goal of a healthy settlement and integration within the broader Australian Community. ACCSA also proactively develop the community in both horizontal and vertical dimensions. While the horizontal community empowerment dimension include holding meetings, fostering togetherness and connectivity, reciprocity, trust and relationship among individuals and communities (Kawachi et al., 1997; Kreuter et al., 1997), the vertical community empowerment dimension include acting as an advocacy lobbying body for resources and leverage of equity outside the community to support a wide range of issues including settlement, health impact and socioeconomic improvements (Chavis et al., 1987; Parker et al., 2001; aum, 2008). ACCSA as an advocacy body acts on behalf of the African community in a multitude of activity with the aim of promoting rights and/or redressing imbalances in power and control. Furthermore, ACCSA acknowledges that barriers to a healthy settlement lie beyond the control of individuals and that, factors external to the African community must be addressed, if social and economic inequalities are to be reduced. In accordance with advocacy dimension, ACCSA agrees with Egger et al. (2005) in recognising the value of democratic participation, community development and empowerment, wherein disadvantaged individuals or groups are enabled to represent themselves and lobby for their own needs. The role of advocacy played by ACCSA could best be categorised as facilitative rather than representational, providing individuals and communities with the skills to tackle and redress existing settlement challenges. In addition to acknowledging significant achievements made by ACCSA in ensuring healthy settlement experiences for Africans in South Australia, it is important to acknowledge that some challenges remain. Ensuring adequate participation, control and critical awareness and to transform each individual, families and the whole community simultaneously will take time. It is necessary, however, to recognise that the community connectivity enabled by ACCSA can provide a framework for policy makers and service providers in Australia to work with and to develop policies and service delivery systems and models that are appropriate and accessible for the African community in South Australia. These policies and service models can be translated for a wider use across Australia and worldwide. References ACCSA (2010), Annual Report 2010, The African Communities Council of South Australia, Adelaide. Albee, G. (1986), Powerlessness, Politics and Prevention, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Alma Ata Declaration (1978), International Conference on Primary Health Care, Meeting in Alma-Ata, USSR, 6-12 September, available at: www.who.int/hpr/nph/docs/declaration_almaata.pdf VOL. 8 NO. 2 2012 j j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MIGRATION, HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE PAGE 95

Australian Human Rights Commission (2010), In our own words African Australians: a review of human rights and social inclusion issues, available at: www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4c1b14252.html aum, F. (2008), The New Public Health, 3rd ed., Oxford University Press, South Melbourne. raithwaite, R. and Lythcott, N. (1989), Community empowerment as a strategy for health promotion for black and other minority populations, Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 261, pp. 282-3. Chavis, D.M., Rich, R. and Wandersman, A. (1987), The role of block associations in crime control and community development: the block booster project, Final Report to the Ford Foundation, Citizens Committee for New York City, New York, NY. Coleman, J.S. (1988), Social capital in the creation of human capital, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 94, pp. S95-S121. Department of Immigration and Citizenship (2011), Key facts in immigration, Fact Sheet Index, available at: www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/ (accessed 7 December 2011). Egger, G., Spark, R. and Donovan, R. (2005), Health Promotion Strategies and Methods, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, Sydney. Fotso, J. and Defo,.K. (2006), Household and community socioeconomic influences on early childhood malnutrition in Africa, Journal of iosocial Science, Vol. 38, pp. 289-313. Gershon, D. (2006), Changing ehaviours in Organisation: The Practice of Empowerment, The Systems Thinker Pegasus Communications, available at: www.empowermentinstitute.net/files/emp_org.html (accessed 5 December 2011). Goodman, R.M., McLeroy, K., Fawcett, S., Kegler, M. and Parker, E. (1998), Identifying and defining the dimensions of community capacity to provide a basis for measurement, Health Education & ehavior, Vol. 25, pp. 258-78. Hogbin, G. (2006), Power in Employment Relationships: Is There an Imbalance?, Vol. 7, New Zealand usiness Roundtable, The Terrace, Wellington, available at: www.nzbr.org.nz (accessed 7 November 2011). Hugo, G. (2009), Migration between Africa and Australia: a demographic perspective, ackground Paper for African Australians: a review of human rights and social inclusion issues, Australian Human Rights Commission, Sydney. Israel,.A., Checkoway,., Schulz, A. and Zimmerman, M. (1994), Health education and community empowerment: conceptualizing and measuring perceptions of individual, organizational, and community control, Health Education Quarterly, Vol. 21, pp. 149-70. Kawachi, I., Kennedy,.P., Lochner, K. and Prothrow-Stith, D. (1997), Social capital, income inequality, and mortality, American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 87, pp. 1491-7. Klein, D. (1968), Community Dynamic and Mental Health, Wiley, New York, NY. Kreuter, M.W., Lezin, N.A., Young, L. and Koplan, A.N. (1997), Social Capital: Evaluation Implications for Community Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA. Lansford, J.E., Dodge, K.A., ates, J.E. and Pettit, G.S. (2004), Ethnic differences in the link between physical discipline and later adolescent externalizing behaviors, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 45 No. 4, pp. 801-12. Larrea, C. and Kawachi, I. (2000), Does economic inequality affect child malnutrition? The case of Ecuador, Social Science & Medicine, Vol. 60 No. 1, pp. 165-78. Laverack, G. (2009), Public Health: Power, Empowerment and Professional Practice, 2nd ed., Palgrave Macmillan, New York, NY. McKnight, J.L. (1985), Health and empowerment, Canadian Journal of Public Health, Vol. 76, pp. 37-8. McMurray, A. (2007), Community Health and Wellness: A Sociological Approach, 3rd ed., Elsevier, Sydney. Minkler, M. (1989), Health education, health promotion and the open society: an historical perspective, Health Education Quarterly, Vol. 16, pp. 17-30. Nutbeam, D. and Harris, E. (2004), Theory in a Nutshell: A Practical Guide to Health Promotion Theories, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, Sydney. PAGE 96j j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MIGRATION, HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE VOL. 8 NO. 2 2012

Parker, E.A., Schultz, A.J., Israel,.A., Schork, M. and Steinman, K.J. (2001), Disentangling measures of individual perceptions of community social dynamics: results of a community survey, Health Education & ehavior, Vol. 28 No. 4, pp. 462-86. Putnam, R.D. (1996), The strange disappearance of civic America, The American Prospect, Vol. 24, pp. 34-48. Sarason, S.. (1984), The Psychological Sense of Community: Prospects for a Community Psychology, Jossey-ass, San Francisco, CA. Seeman, M. and Seeman, T.E. (1983), Health behavior and personal autonomy: a longitudinal study of the sense of control in illness, Journal of Health and Social ehavior, Vol. 24, pp. 144-60. Seligman, M. (1975), Helplessness, The Freeman Press, San Francisco, CA. Steuart, G.W. (1978), Social and cultural perspectives: community intervention and mental health, paper presented at the Fourteenth Annual John W. Umstead Series of Distinguished Lectures, Raleigh, NC. Talbot, L. and Verrinder, G. (2010), Promoting Health: The Primary Health Care Approach, 4th ed., Elsevier, Sydney. Tesoriero, F. (2010), Community Development: Community-based Alternatives in an Age of Globalisation, Pearson Education Australia, French s Forest. United Nations (2000), Millennium Development Goal. Promoting Gender Equality and Women Empowerment. Millenium Development Goal 3, available at: www.beta.undp.org/undp/en/home/ mdgoverview.html (accessed 7 November 2011). Wallerstein, N. (1992), Powerlessness, empowerment, and health: implications for health promotion programs, American Journal of Health Promotion, Vol. 6, pp. 197-205. Wallerstein, N. and ernstein, E. (1994), Community empowerment, participatory education and health, Health Education Quarterly, Vol. 21, pp. 141-8. Wallerstein, N. and Edwards,. (1988), Empowerment education: Freire s ideas adapted to health education, Health Education Quarterly, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 379-94. WHO (1986), The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion, World Health Organisation, Geneva. WHO (1997), The Jakarta Declaration on Leading Health Promotion into the 21st Century, World Health Organisation, Jakarta. Wilkinson, R. and Marmot, M. (2005), Social Determinants of Health: The Solid Facts, 2nd ed., World Health Organization, Copenhagen. Zimmerman, M.A. (2000), Empowerment theory: psychological, organizational and community levels of analysis, in Rappaport, J. and Seidman, E. (Eds), Handbook of Community Psychology, Plenum Publishers, New York, NY. About the authors Lillian Mwanri is based at the Discipline of Public Health, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia. Lillian Mwanri is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: lillian.mwanri@flinders.edu.au Kiros Hiruy is based at the Institute for Regional Development, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia. Joseph Masika is a Team Leader, Community Development Team, Intercountry Services, Statewide Services Directorate, Families SA Department for Education and Child Development, Government of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia. To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints VOL. 8 NO. 2 2012 j j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MIGRATION, HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE PAGE 97