TEACHER EDITION Page One Economics is an informative accessible essay on timely economic issues. The Teacher Edition provides the essay; student questions with answers; and additional lesson ideas for classroom, extra credit, or make-up assignments. The Student Edition includes the essay and student questions; https://research.stlouisfed.org/publications/page1-econ/2017/09/01/whyare-some-countries-rich-and-others-poor_se.pdf. National Common Core State Standards (see pages 8-9) September 2017 Why Are Some Countries Rich and Others Poor? Scott A. Wolla, Ph.D., Senior Economic Education Specialist
Why Are Some Countries Rich and Others Poor? Scott A. Wolla, Ph.D., Senior Economic Education Specialist GLOSSARY Factors of production: The natural resources, human resources, and capital resources that are available to make goods and services. Also known as productive resources. Capital resources: Goods that have been produced and are used to produce other goods and services. They are used over and over again in the production process. Also called capital goods and physical capital. Standard of living: A measure of the goods and services available to each person in a country; a measure of economic wellbeing. Also known as per capita real GDP (gross domestic product). Trade barrier: A government-imposed restriction on the international trade of goods or services. Open markets offer the only realistic hope of pulling billions of people in developing countries out of abject poverty, while sustaining prosperity in the industrialized world. 1 Kofi Annan, former United Nations Secretary-General Many people mark the birth of economics as the publication of Adam Smith s The Wealth of Nations in 1776. Actually, this classic s full title is An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, and Smith does indeed attempt to explain why some nations achieve wealth and others fail to do so. Yet, in the 241 years since the book s publication, the gap between rich countries and poor countries has grown even larger. Economists are still refining their answer to the original question: Why are some countries rich and others poor, and what can be done about it? Rich and Poor In common language, the terms rich and poor are often used in a relative sense: A poor person has less income, wealth, goods, or services than a rich person. When considering nations, economists often use gross domestic product (GDP) per capita as an indicator of average economic well-being within a country. GDP is the total market value, expressed in dollars, of all final goods and services produced in an economy in a given year. In a sense, a country s GDP is like its yearly income. So, dividing a particular country s GDP by its population is an estimate of how much income, on average, the economy produces per person (per capita) per year. In other words, GDP per capita is a measure of a nation s standard of living. For example, in 2016, GDP per capita was $57,467 in the United States, $42,158 in Canada, $27,539 in South Korea, $8,123 in China, $1,513 in Ghana, and $455 in Liberia (Figure 1). 2 Because GDP per capita is simply GDP divided by the population, it is a measure of income as if it were divided equally among the population. In reality, there can be large differences in the incomes of people within a country. So, even in a country with relatively low GDP, some people will be better off than others. And, there are poor people in very wealthy countries. In 2013 (the most recent year comprehensive data on global poverty September 2017 Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research.stlouisfed.org
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research.stlouisfed.org 2 Figure 1 The Average Standard of Living Varies Widely Among Countries Institutions Matter Property rights refers to the ability of people and businesses to own land and capital. Ownership enables people to produce, buy, and sell goods and services and to profit from business ventures. The right to own private property also includes the ability to sell that property. Without secure property rights, not many people would be willing to start a business, buy a house or land, or invest. Free and open markets refers to the ability of people and businesses to buy and sell goods and services with minimal interference by government. This is a balancing act: While government provides protection for its citizens through its regulations, too much regulation can make economic transactions unprofitable and unattractive. NOTE: Liberia s GDP per capita of $455 is included but not visible due to the scale. The Republic of Korea is the official name of South Korea. SOURCE: World Bank, retrieved from FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis; https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=emgq, accessed July 26, 2017. are available), 767 million people, or 10.7 percent of the world population, were estimated to be living below the international poverty line of $1.90 per person per day. 3 Whether for people or nations, the key to escaping poverty lies in rising levels of income. For nations specifically, which measure wealth in terms of GDP, escaping poverty requires increasing the amount of output (per person) that their economy produces. In short, economic growth enables countries to escape poverty. How Do Economies Grow? Economic growth is a sustained rise over time in a nation s production of goods and services. How can a country increase its production? Well, an economy s production is a function of its inputs, or factors of production (natural resources, labor resources, and capital resources), and the productivity of those factors (specifically the productivity of labor and capital resources), which is called total factor productivity (TFP). Consider a shoe factory. Total shoe production is a function of the inputs (raw materials such as leather, labor supplied by workers, and capital resources, which are the tools and equipment in the factory), but it also depends on how skilled the workers are and how useful the equipment is. Now, imagine two factories with the same number of workers. In the first factory, workers with basic skills move goods around with push carts, assemble goods with hand tools, and work at benches. In the second factory, highly trained workers use motorized forklifts to move pallets of goods and Rule of law holds that the law not individual government leaders governs a nation and that the government, government leaders, and all people must follow the law. The rule of law provides a sense of stability and certainty for economic transactions. For example, people and businesses are more likely to invest for the future if they feel confident that the rules of the game will be stable, rather than in a state of constant change. power tools to assemble goods that move along a conveyer belt. Because the second factory has higher TFP, it will have higher output, earn greater income, and provide higher wages for its workers. Similarly, for a country, higher TFP will result in a higher rate of economic growth. A higher rate of economic growth means more goods are produced per person, which creates higher incomes and enables more people to escape poverty at a faster rate. But, how can nations increase TFP to escape poverty? While there are many factors to consider, two stand out. Institutions First, institutions matter. For an economist, institutions are the rules of the game that create the incentives for people and businesses. For example, when people are able to earn a profit from their work or business, they have an incentive not only to produce but also to continually improve their method of production. The rules of the game help determine the economic incentive to produce. On the flip side, if people are not monetarily rewarded for their work or business, or if the benefits of their production are likely to be taken away or lost, the incentive to produce will diminish. For this reason, many economists suggest that institutions such as property rights, free and open markets, and the rule of law (see the boxed insert) provide the best incentives and opportunities for individuals to produce goods and services.
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research.stlouisfed.org 3 North and South Korea often serve as an example of the importance of institutions. In a sense they are a natural experiment. These two nations share a common history, culture, and ethnicity. In 1953 these nations were formally divided and governed by very different governments. North Korea is a dictatorial communist nation where property rights and free and open markets are largely absent and the rule of law is repressed. In South Korea, institutions provide strong incentives for innovation and productivity. The results? North Korea is among the poorest nations in the world, while South Korea is among the richest. 4 While this seems like a simple relationship if government provides strong property rights, free markets, and the rule of law, markets will thrive and the economy will grow research suggests that the institution story alone does not provide a complete picture. In some cases, government support is important to the development of a nation s economy. Closer inspection shows that the economic transformation in South Korea, which started in the 1960s, was under the dictatorial rule of Park Chung-hee (who redirected the nation s economic focus on export-driven industry), not under conditions of strong property rights, free markets, and the rule of law (which came later). 5 South Korea s move toward industrialization was an important first step in its economic development (see South Korea s growth in Figure 2). China is another example of an economy that has grown dramatically. In a single generation it has been transformed from a backward agrarian nation into a manufacturing powerhouse. China tried market reforms during the Qing dynasty (whose modernization reforms started in 1860 and lasted until its overthrow in 1911) and the Republic Era (1912-1949), but they were not effective. China s economic transformation began in 1978 under Deng Xiaoping, who imposed a government-led initiative to support industrialization and the development of markets, both internally and for export of Chinese goods. 6 These early government-supported changes helped develop the markets necessary for the current, dramatic increase in economic growth (see Figure 2). Trade Second, international trade is an important part of the economic growth story for most countries. Think about Figure 2 Some Countries Have Been More Successful at Escaping Poverty Than Others NOTE: While the Republic of Korea (the official name of South Korea), China, Ghana, and Liberia had similar standards of living in 1970, they have developed differently since then. SOURCE: World Bank, retrieved from FRED, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis; https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=emgt, accessed July 26, 2017. two kids in the school cafeteria trading a granola bar for a chocolate chip cookie. They are willing to trade because it offers them both an opportunity to benefit. Nations trade for the same reason. When poorer nations use trade to access capital goods (such as advanced technology and equipment), they can increase their TFP, resulting in a higher rate of economic growth. 7 Also, trade provides a broader market for a country to sell the goods and services it produces. Many nations, however, have trade barriers that restrict their access to trade. Recent research suggests that the removal of trade barriers could close the income gap between rich and poor countries by 50 percent. 8 Conclusion Economic growth of less-developed economies is key to closing the gap between rich and poor countries. Differences in the economic growth rate of nations often come down to differences in inputs (factors of production) and differences in TFP the productivity of labor and capital resources. Higher productivity promotes faster economic growth, and faster growth allows a nation to escape poverty. Factors that can increase productivity (and growth) include institutions that provide incentives for innovation and production. In some cases, government can play an important part in the development of a nation s economy. Finally, increasing access to inter-
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research.stlouisfed.org 4 national trade can provide markets for the goods produced by less-developed countries and also increase productivity by increasing the access to capital resources. n Notes 1 Globalist. Kofi Annan on Global Futures. February 6, 2011; https://www.theglobalist.com/kofi-annan-on-global-futures/. 2 Data from the World Bank retrieved from FRED ; https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=erxy, accessed July 26, 2017. 3 World Bank. Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2016: Taking on Equality. 2016, p. 4; http://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/poverty-and-shared-prosperity. 4 Olson, Mancur. Big Bills Left on the Sidewalk: Why Some Nations are Rich, and Others Poor. Journal of Economic Perspectives, Spring 1996, 10(2), pp. 3-24. 5 Wen, Yi and Wolla, Scott. China s Rapid Economic Rise: A New Application of an Old Recipe. Social Education. Social Education, March/April 2017, 81(2), pp. 93-97. 6 Wen, Yi and Fortier, George E. The Visible Hand: The Role of Government in China s Long-Awaited Industrial Revolution. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, Third Quarter 2016, 98(3), pp. 189-226; https://dx.doi.org/10.20955/r.2016.189-226. 7 Santacreu, Ana Maria. Convergence in Productivity, R&D Intensity, and Technology Adoption. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Economic Synopses, No. 11, 2017; https://doi.org/10.20955/es.2017.11. 8 Mutreja, Piyusha; Ravikumar, B. and Sposi, Michael J. Capital Goods Trade and Economic Development. Working Paper No. 2014-012, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, 2014; https://research.stlouisfed.org/wp/2014/2014-012.pdf. Please visit our website and archives http://research.stlouisfed.org/pageone-economics/ for more information and resources. 2017, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Views expressed do not necessarily reflect official positions of the Federal Reserve System.
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research.stlouisfed.org 5 Name Period Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page One Economics : Why Are Some Countries Rich and Others Poor? After reading the article, complete the following: 1. Why is GDP per capita used as an estimate of the average standard of living in a country? 2. Why is economic growth key for countries who want to escape poverty? 3. How do institutions increase total factor productivity (TFP) and create incentives for economic growth? 4. The institutional theory suggests that by establishing property rights, free and open markets, and the rule of law, a country will create the incentives necessary for markets to develop and the economy to grow without much other government intervention. Describe how evidence from South Korea and China suggests that, in some cases, government must play a larger role. 5. How can international trade increase TFP within a country?
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research.stlouisfed.org 6 Teacher s Guide Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Page One Economics : Why Are Some Countries Rich and Others Poor? After reading the article, complete the following: 1. Why is GDP per capita used as an estimate of the average standard of living in a country? Because GDP is like a country s yearly income, dividing a country s GDP by its population is an estimate of how much income, on average, the economy produces per person per year. As such, GDP per capita reflects the average standard of living in a country. 2. Why is economic growth key for countries who want to escape poverty? A higher rate of economic growth means more goods are produced per person, which creates higher incomes and enables more people to escape poverty at a faster rate. 3. How do institutions increase total factor productivity (TFP) and create incentives for economic growth? Institutions are the rules of the game that create the incentives for people and businesses. When people are able to earn a profit from their work or business, they have an incentive not only to produce, but also to continually improve their method of production, which leads to increases in TFP. 4. The institutional theory suggests that by establishing property rights, free and open markets, and the rule of law, a country will create the incentives necessary for markets to develop and the economy to grow without much other government intervention. Describe how evidence from South Korea and China suggests that, in some cases, government must play a larger role. In South Korea, Park Chung-hee, a dictator, encouraged the development of export-driven industry that led to the economic growth that followed. This government-driven reform happened before South Korea had strong property rights, free markets, and rule of law. In China, economic development and growth did not take hold until Deng Xiaoping imposed a government-led program to industrialize the economy. 5. How can international trade increase TFP within a country? International trade allows countries to access capital resources (such as advanced technology and equipment), allowing them to increase their TFP and their rate of economic growth.
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research.stlouisfed.org 7 Additional Resources Econ Lowdown of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis provides numerous economic education resources for teachers to use with their students. These include lesson plans, online modules, interactive whiteboard lessons, podcasts, and videos. These free resources are available at https://www.stlouisfed.org/education. Use the Econ Lowdown classroom resources listed below to help teach about topics related to this issue of Page One Economics. To register your students for the online course, on the Econ Lowdown website (linked above), click the TEACHERS button to create or access your account and visit the Instructor Management Panel. Economic Growth Online Course for Teachers and Students Our standard of living depends on the pace of economic growth. That pace can be enhanced through increased productivity brought about by investment in physical and human capital and advances in technology. In this course, students learn about these tools and how they increase productivity and advance our standard of living. https://www.stlouisfed.org/education/economic-growth-online-course-for-teachers-and-students The Productivity Puzzle (Page One Economics Teacher and Student Editions) Are many products made in the United States anymore? As it turns out, yes. In fact, U.S. manufacturing output is near its highest level ever and with fewer workers. How is that possible? Productivity growth. The March 2017 issue of Page One Economics describes what affects productivity, why economists are concerned about its recent slowdown, and what can be done about it. https://www.stlouisfed.org/education/page-one-economics-classroom-edition/the-productivity-puzzle Timely Topics, Economic Development Part 1: Why Are Some Countries So Rich and Others So Poor? The gap between rich and poor countries has grown exponentially since the days of Adam Smith. In the 1770s, rich countries were twice as well-off as poor countries. These days, GDP per capita is 35 times higher in rich countries than in poor countries. In this 3½ minute video, economist B. Ravikumar explains how he and other economists are looking at these cross-country income differences. https://www.stlouisfed.org/timely-topics/economic-development/videos/part-1-why-are-some-countries-so-rich What Are the Ingredients for Economic Growth? (Page One Economics Classroom and Student Editions) Is there a recipe for economic growth? Perhaps some Miracle-Gro for the economy? If only it were that easy. While the exact recipe is a mystery, economists have identified some of the key ingredients. This issue discusses the role that economic institutions play in fostering long-term economic growth. https://www.stlouisfed.org/education/page-one-economics-classroom-edition/what-are-the-ingredients-for-economic-growth
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research.stlouisfed.org 8 National Standards Common Core State Standards English Language Arts Standards Reading Informational Text Key Ideas and Details RI.9-10.2: Determine a central idea of a text and analyze its development over the course of the text, including how it emerges and is shaped and refined by specific details; provide an objective summary of the text. RI.11-12.1: Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text, including determining where the text leaves matters uncertain. Grades 6-12 Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects History/Social Studies Key Ideas and Details RH.11-12.1: Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, connecting insights gained from specific details to an understanding of the text as a whole. RH.11-12.2: Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary that makes clear the relationships among the key details and ideas. Integration of Knowledge and Ideas Writing RH.11-12.7: Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., visually, quantitatively, as well as in words) in order to address a question or solve a problem. Research to Build and Present Knowledge WHST.11-12.7: Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation. Voluntary National Content Standards Standard 5: Trade Voluntary exchange occurs only when all participating parties expect to gain. This is true for trade among individuals or organizations within a nation, and among individuals or organizations in different nations. Benchmarks: Grade 8 1. When people buy something, they value it more than it costs them; when people sell something, they value it less than the payment they receive. 2. Free trade increases worldwide material standards of living. 4. Despite the mutual benefits from trade among people in different countries, many nations employ trade barriers to restrict free trade for national defense reasons, to protect key industries, or because some companies and workers are hurt by free trade.
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research.stlouisfed.org 9 Standard 10: Institutions Institutions evolve and are created to help individuals and groups accomplish their goals. Banks, labor unions, markets, corporations, legal systems, and not-for-profit organizations are examples of important institutions. A different kind of institution, clearly defined and enforced property rights, is essential to a market economy. Benchmarks: Grade 12 1. Property rights, contract enforcement, standards for weights and measures, and liability rules affect incentives for people to produce and exchange goods and services. Standard 15: Economic Growth Investment in factories, machinery, new technology, and in the health, education, and training of people stimulates economic growth and can raise future standards of living. Benchmarks: Grade 8 1. Standards of living increase as the productivity of labor improves. 2. Productivity is measured by dividing output (goods and services) by the number of inputs used to produce the output. A change in productivity is a change in output relative to input. 4. Increases in productivity can result from advances in technology or increases in physical or human capital. Benchmarks: Grade 12 1. Economic growth is a sustained rise in a nation s production of goods and services. Long-term growth in output results from improvements in labor productivity and increases in employment. It varies across countries because of differences in investments in human and physical capital, research and development, technological change, and from alternative institutional arrangements and incentives. 2. Historically, economic growth that raises per capita output has been a vehicle for alleviating poverty and raising standards of living. 3. Investing in new physical or human capital can increase future productivity and consumption, but such investments require the sacrifice of current consumption and entail economic risks. 5. The rate of productivity increase in an economy is strongly affected by the incentives that reward successful innovation and investments (in research and development, and in physical and human capital). Standard 16: Role of Government and Market Failure There is an economic role for government in a market economy whenever the benefits of a government policy outweigh its costs. Governments often provide for national defense, address environmental concerns, define and protect property rights, and attempt to make markets more competitive. Most government policies also have direct or indirect effects on people s incomes. Benchmarks: Grade 12 2. An important role for government in the economy is to define, establish, and enforce property rights. A property right to a good or service includes the right to exclude others from using the good or service and the right to transfer the ownership or use of the resource to others. 8. Government laws establish the rules and institutions in which markets operate. These include such things as property rights, collective bargaining rules, laws about discrimination, and laws regulating marriage and family life.