Chapter 31: A New America? 1989- Overview As the 1980s drew to a close, much that had been certain in American life, namely the Cold War, was over. The United States was the only super power in the world and instead of celebration and relaxation, America and Americans were uncertain. Ambivalence and reluctance soon complemented uncertainty. What were the nation s obligations and needs in light of such a momentous change? The 1990s brought about economic changes. What is called the postindustrial economy was led by the service sector, computer companies, and high-technology firms. An economic boom of the 1990s was transforming as the decade and century came to a close. The Reagan Revolution failed to bring about permanent conservative change. The 1990s brought political moderation and uncertainty. George Bush failed to win reelection but Bill Clinton failed to reshape American politics. No party or philosophy seemed to mold politics and government at the end of the century. In the 1990s Americans still quarreled over the rights of African Americans, women, and homosexuals. Because of immigration in the 1970s and 1980s, the nation became more ethnically diverse, and if any topic dominated the public agenda, it was diversity. Key Topics The information in chapter 31 introduces your students to the following key topics: 1. The ways in which the end of the Cold War forced the United States to redefine its international role 2. The nature of the postindustrial Information economy 3. The inconclusive battle to reform American politics and government in the 1990s 4. The impact of diversity on American society and politics Chapter Outline Felix Iosifovich Andreev After the Cold War Victory in the Cold War America s Role in a Changed World The Persian Gulf War Retreating from the New World Order An Uncertain Foreign Policy A New Economy Toward a Postindustrial Economy Toward a Global Economy Downsizing America An Uneasy Prosperity Political Uncertainty George Bush and the End of the Reagan Revolution The Rebellion Against Politics as Usual The Clinton Presidency and the Disappointment of Reform The Clinton Scandals Struggles Over Diversity and Rights The Impact of Immigration Debating Divers The Status of African Americans Feature: America on Trial: The Simpson Criminal Trial Contesting Women Rights Contesting Gay and Lesbian Rights New Demands for Rights Conclusion Annotated chapter outline with review questions 216
Felix Iosifovich Andreev: Felix Iosifovich Andreev, a Russian immigrant living in Brighton Beach, a suburb of Brooklyn, New York, had many reasons to be optimistic. Like immigrants before him, he looked for an improved living standard for himself and his family and opportunities for his children that would not have been possible in Russia. But the America Andreev moved to was changing in ways that were not clearly seen or understood. His future, like that of the United States was uncertain. After the Cold War: As the 1980s drew to a close, much that had been certain in American life, namely the Cold War, was over. The United States was the only super power in the world and instead of celebration and relaxation, America and Americans were uncertain. Ambivalence and reluctance soon complemented uncertainty. What were the nation s obligations and needs in light of such a momentous change. 1. President Reagan s successor George Bush, built cautiously on the initiatives of Reagan s second administration. Weapons stockpiles and research were reduced. All across Eastern Europe, communist ally nations were collapsing and free elections and economic reforms followed. The Berlin Wall, long seen as the symbol of communist repression, was dismantled by jubilant Berliner s in 1989. Soon the tide swept the communists from office in the Soviet Union and the union fell apart as one republic after another declared independence. Mikhail Gorbachev was forced to resign and the Soviet parliament suspended the Communist Party. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990 the Cold War was over. 2. With the Cold War over, Americans had to re-evaluate their place in the world. The isolationist rhetoric was heard again. So, too, was the argument that the United States had plenty of problems of its own that it need not look to solve other nation s problems. The spokesman for this philosophy was the conservative Patrick Buchanan who demanded the government put America First in its policy priorities. On the other side were the internationalists who believed in the American commitment to international freedom and maintaining overseas commitments. He called for a New World Order that stressed democracy, free trade, and private enterprise. In 1989, President Bush authorized a unilateral intervention in Panama. President Manuel Noriega was captured, arrested on drug trafficking charges, and taken back to the United States for trial. Like containment, the New World Order would be an expensive endeavor. 3. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990, threatened the oil-producing nation of Saudi Arabia and President Bush s New World Order. Bush responded to the aggression forcefully. Operation Desert Shield was designed to force Hussein out of Kuwait and back within his borders. Bush obtained Congressional approval for the use of force, if necessary. On January 17, 1991, two days after a UN deadline, coalition forces attacked Iraqi forces. The war lasted 100 hours: American forces swept into Kuwait, devastated Iraqi forces, and pushed into Iraq. President Bush called a halt to the Iraqi invasion before the capital, Baghdad, was toppled or Saddam Hussein removed from office. The New World Order was no more completely defined after Desert Storm than before. 4. In truth, events seemed to reduce the effectiveness of the New World Order. In 1992, a civil war in Somalia forced Bush to send 1800 Marines to serve in a UN force protecting relief workers. By 1994, when troops evacuated, the American public was clearly reluctant to accept the dangers of the New World Order. This was particularly true in Eastern Europe when violence followed the collapse of communist Yugoslavia. Even when it was obvious that Serbia was practicing systematic genocide Presidents Bush and Clinton were reluctant to risk military intervention. Eventually Clinton, working with NATO, committed 20,000 troops to the peacekeeping force. The reluctance to commit ground troops is seen as a reluctance to sacrifice all for a common goal or moral stance. Critics claim that while Americans were tentative tens of thousands of civilians were killed. Additionally the cessation of the Cold War caused Congress to cut defense budgets. 5. No single principle replaced the New World Order. President Clinton responded to economic interests. The United States recognized the government of Vietnam and widened economic relations with communist China. Earlier concerns for human rights issues were not as important to the Clinton administration as to that of President Carter. But that is not to say that Americans embraced isolationism. Clinton tackled Middle East problems as had his predecessors, but Americans faced terrorist violence at home because of its willingness to promote peace. If foreign policy is looked at over the century, the policy of the 1990s resembles that of pre-world War II. Isolationism is not possible, but Americans in the 1990s seem to want to minimize international involvement as much as possible. 6. Why did the Cold War come to an end? Did the United States win the Cold War? 217
7. Describe the debates over the international role of the United States after the Cold War. Why were Americans reluctant to support George Bush's vision of the New World Order? A New Economy: The 1990s brought about economic changes. What is called the postindustrial economy was led by the service sector, computer companies, and high-technology firms. The postindustrial economy is a yet unclear. An economic boom of the 1990s was transforming as the decade and century came to a close. 1. By 1994 the service sector accounted for about 70 percent of the nation s economic activity. More Americans worked in restaurants, retail stores, and offices instead of factories. The computer symbolized these changes. The computer revolution seemed to be repeating the industrial revolution and along with its changes went a wave of corporate mergers and acquisitions. 2. The economy that was unfolding at the end of the twentieth century was a global economy. Exports and imports, global commerce, and international competition involved governments as well as corporations. The North American Free Trade Agreement, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and even the European Union were created to ease and stimulate global trade. 3. Another phrase of the 1990s, downsizing, characterized this economy. Stunning cutbacks occurred in a relatively prosperous time and they happened in some of the most stable American companies. What may have been good for business had a profound negative effect on American workers. Middle class life was also seen as more insecure. 4. But despite the negative, the economy of the 1990s was strong due in part to international competition, corporate cost cutting, low oil prices, negligible inflation, low interest rates, and low unemployment. The stock market reached one seemingly unattainable high after another. Americans remained uneasy because of downsizing and foreign competition. The banking crisis of the late 1980s also increased the federal deficit, Americans health care costs escalated, and Americans worried that they could not afford retirement. 8. What were the causes of the uncertain politics of the 1990s? How did popular discontent shape politics and government during the decade? Political Uncertainty: The Reagan Revolution failed to bring about permanent conservative change. The 1990s brought political moderation and uncertainty. George Bush failed to win re election but Bill Clinton failed to reshape American politics. No party or philosophy seemed to mold politics and government at the end of the century. 9. George Bush was Ronald Reagan s vice president and hand-picked successor, but Bush was not the embodiment of Ronald Reagan even though he continued to support much of Reagan s conservative agenda. His win over the Democrat Governor Michael Dukakis continued the Republican control of the White House, except that the Democrats controlled the Congress. Bush lacked Reagan s personal appeal and even though Bush was much more moderate than Reagan, Bush s administration was undone because of the nation s budget. He went back on his no new taxes pledge and agreed to a tax increase in 1990. An economic recession in 1991 and 1992 intensified Americans dissatisfaction with him. 10. President Bush also failed to deal with the signs that the American voter was dissatisfied with politics as usual. By 1994 only 19 percent of Americans felt they could trust the government. Politicians, they believed were out of touch with ordinary citizens. New scandals reinforced those beliefs. Election campaign reform, term limits, and a grassroots populist third party all illustrate Americans frustrations with government and politics as usual. Democrat Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton seemed to embody the nation s hopes for change. The Democrats managed a coalition of workers, white southerners, and blacks to win. Democrats controlled Washington. 11. Bill Clinton was the first politician to come from the baby boom generation. His family was of modest roots and his immediate family was modern. He balanced a traditional liberal activism with more conservative efforts to shrink government. Economic strength in the mid 1990s led to a Clinton victory over Republican Bob Dole. Clinton returned to the White House but the Congress was controlled by the Republicans. Neither the Democrats nor the Republicans could articulate a clear vision that the American voter found interesting or relevant. The decade ended with the same voter malaise. 12. Whatever Clinton accomplished, his administration was tarnished by his compromises with conservatism and destroyed by a series of scandals. Allegations of financial corruption and questionable campaign fund raising practices haunted Clinton s two terms. Sexual misconduct and allegations of obstruction of justice in order to conceal an alleged sexual relationship with a young White House page brought about a grand 218
jury investigation in August 1998. The Republican-dominated House of Representatives voted two articles of impeachment charging President Clinton with obstruction of justice and perjury. In February 1999 the Senate voted to acquit Clinton on both charges. The Republicans in the Senate needed Democrats to get the 2/3 majority vote for a conviction. 13. What were the main features of the postindustrial economy? Why were Americans anxious about the economy even though it was relatively strong? Struggles over Diversity and Rights: In the 1990s Americans still quarreled over the rights of African- Americans, women, and homosexuals. Because of immigration in the 1970s and 1980s, the nation became more ethnically diverse and if any topic dominated the public agenda it was diversity. 1. By 1997, nearly ten percent of the nation s population had recently immigrated to the United States. The basic difference between this most recent era of immigration and those of the past was that the recent immigrants were not predominantly European. More than a quarter of them came from Mexico, others from the Philippines, China, Cuba, Jamaica, El Salvador, Poland, and the former East Germany. Perhaps one reason immigration became part of the public agenda was the uneven geographic distribution across the United States. Most settled in only six states: California, Florida, New York, Texas, Illinois, and New Jersey. The new immigrants were highly concentrated in cities and they were highly visible. 2. Diversity was at the heart of the immigration controversy and the disagreements also drove two other issues: the status of the family and American culture. Changes in the make-up and definition of the American family fueled much of the conservative political rhetoric. Family values was the political catch-all phrase of the decade. The other area of debate were the answers to the question: what makes up American culture? 3. For African-Americans diversity continued to define their status. Economic and political gains and a growing middle class was balanced by high levels of unemployment and poverty. Racial injustice and conflict remained a part of American life. The nomination and appointment of Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court and the violence following the acquittal of four Los Angeles policemen charged with beating Rodney King reflect the social and political conflict. The inequality of African-Americans was not a high priority for the Bush or Clinton administrations nor did the American public push it to the top of the nation s agenda. The reality of the 1990s was that African-Americans did not enjoy equal rights. The O. J. Simpson murder case and the civil trial which followed illustrate the divisions. 4. Contesting Women s Rights: The women s movement of the 1990s was similar to the African-American struggle for equal rights. Despite a narrower gap between men s and women s earning power and the expanding number of women in high levels of government service and industry, women continued to face discrimination. The controversies of sexual harassment, whether it was Clarence Thomas, President Bill Clinton, or in the military, raised questions about men exploiting their power over women. 5. The quest for equal rights for homosexual men and women remained unsettled in the 1990s. More federal money was allocated to AIDS research in the Bush administration, more gay men and women lived openly, and Americans made some room for homosexual men and women. 6. The 1990s reflected an American society struggling with change. New debates were added to the old. Do Americans have the right to die? Do they have the freedom to live without government intervention? How far can antigovernment extremists go to protect their rights in light of government s needs for order? Whether it was violence at Ruby Ridge, Idaho, or the Branch Dividians at Waco, Texas, or terrorists bombing a federal building in Oklahoma City, Americans in the 1990s struggled to make sense of the times and their lives. 14. Why was diversity such an important issue in the 1990s? How did the new immigration contribute to the concern about diversity? 15. How did the struggle for rights change in the 1990s? How did the spread of domestic terrorism reflect concern about rights? Feature: America on Trial: The Simpson Criminal Trial: More than a simple murder trial, the O. J. Simpson murder trial had something for everyone and each aspect was examined, analyzed, and used to explain the verdict. Race, gender, class, science, and the judicial system were on trial alongside the defendant. 219
Conclusion: As the old century closed, Americans lived in uncertainty. Much about the old world had changed. The Cold War was over, for example, but instead of jubilation, Americans were even more uncertain. The postindustrial economy was still evolving. Making links to other ideas Using the maps and websites, in addition to your prepared lectures and other assignments, can give you more resources to enable your students to see that history is much more than memorizing names and dates. You will find that the websites are even more comprehensive and adaptable than described and because they have been collected here in one volume you have a world of information no further away than the click of your mouse. If you are new to the web's opportunities, you will be pleasantly surprised at the breadth and depth of the information available in these sites. Map 01. What does this map show? List the nations with the most foreign investments starting with the most and ending with the least. Map 02. Which area of the nation has the most Americans claiming membership in an evangelical Christian denomination? Does this membership have any bearing on the results depicted in Map 03? Map 03. If Ross Perot had not been in the election, what would the outcome of the election have been? Where was George Bush s strength? Clinton s? Map 04. Which Arab nations supported the U. S. in Desert Storm? Which did not? Approximately how far into Iraq did Allied forces advance? Put the following in chronological order: Civil Rights Act, Clinton impeachment hearings, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, Immigration Reform and Control Act, Million Man March, North American Free Trade Agreement, Persian Gulf War, Planned Parenthood v. Casey, Strategic Arms Reduction Talks Treaty, Strategic Defense Initiative, White Water investigations. Web connections and resources Consider using these websites to supplement your students reading and analytical skills. The sites were chosen because of their relevance to the material in the chapter -- not just to mirror it but to provide additional materials and perspectives. Questions from the student study guide have been included so that you can use or amend them to your own needs. Your students may find it insightful for you to guide them through the site as you help them develop research strategies. "A New America?" www.prenhall.com/boydston/globalization Globalization promises to change life in the United States -- and the course of history -- as thoroughly and permanently as did the industrialization of the 19th century. The conclusion of the 20th century was marked by fairly rapid expansion of global interaction in business, leisure travel, philanthropy, politics, social movements, and environmental interaction. The United States has become part -- a large part, but just a part -- of a "First World" society that now spans the planet. If the United States is now a service economy, where is production of goods going on? Is this new way of looking at things an improvement? Does it matter if we think it is or not? What defines a nation besides a map, a passport, and the title of a history book? The History of GATT and the Structure of the WTO http://www.ljx.com/practice/internet. history.html On this web site, read more about the fundamental policies of the General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the 1947 economic policy intended to reduce trade barriers and regulate commerce. The History of Silicon Valley http://www.ocf.berklet.edu/~kenken/svhis.htm This site details the beginnings the information age through electronics. Read about the beginnings of Silicon Valley as a research center and how the industry was propelled by the revolutions of the personal computer and the World Wide Web. The Intermediate Nuclear Force Agreement (INF) http://www.state.gov/www/global/arms/ treaties/inf1.html Read the full text document of the INF agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union, an agreement that was the first true nuclear disarmament treaty. 220
1. Summarize the American and Soviet positions and compromises. What did each side agree to do? How was compliance to be determined? The Gulf War http://www/pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/ Read about the Gulf War commanders, read testimony of American soldiers in combat, and learn about the events leading up to the invasion by consulting the timeline of events. 1. Based on the transcripts of the Allied decision-makers, what was Desert Storm about? Was that testimony different from that of the combat soldiers? Analytical reading Your students may need more experience analyzing a short reading passage so that he or she can determine its component parts. They may need help identifying primary and supporting information as well as the author s analysis. The analytical reading passages and the questions from the student study guide have been duplicated in the instructor s manual for your use. Your students may need direction and encouragement in using them. The new immigrants also had a major impact because of their uneven geographical distribution across the United States. The great majority of immigrants settled in only six states -- California, Florida, New York, Texas, Illinois, and New Jersey. Moreover, immigrants were likely to live in large cities such as Los Angeles, Miami, New York City, Houston, and Chicago. As a result, the impact of the new immigration was highly concentrated and highly visible. The effects of large, concentrated, non-west European immigration were especially evident in Miami, Florida. Since the 1960s, migration, particularly from nearby Cuba, had remade this formerly white-majority city. By the 1990s one-third of Miami s 2 million residents had Cuban origins. With substantial numbers of Colombians, Mexicans, Dominicans, and Peruvians as well, Miami had become the first major city with a Hispanic majority. That fact redefined city life. Miami was bilingual: Spanish was about as common as English. The city s economy depended heavily on trade and banking relations with Caribbean, Central American, and South American nations. The city's culture reflected the Hispanic majority. Miami was the home of the singer Gloria Estefan, a Cuban immigrant who fused Latin rhythms with American pop music to create the popular Miami sound. The new immigration put considerable strain on Miami. Its schools and hospitals were overcrowded. And many longtime residents resented the new arrivals. We ve become a Third World country, declared a white Miamian. 1. If immigrants had settled across the nation instead of in a few cities and states, would Americans have felt any concern about the number of immigrants arriving? 2. The sentiment expressed by the white Miamian could have been said by a New Yorker one hundred years earlier. Using the past as your guide, should the Miamian have reason to worry? Why or why not? Writing The questions or writing prompts from the student study guide have been duplicated here for your use. These writing topics make good lecture topics especially if you help your students see the development of the idea in lecture format before they refine the idea in their writing assignments. 1. How had the battles for individual and group rights changed by the end of the decade? 2. In the 1950s Americans believed the Cold War would probably end with a big bang. Instead it ended in a whisper. What happened to bring about the end of the Cold War? 3. At the end of the Cold War, the U. S. was the only superpower. What international challenges faced the nation after 1991? 4. Having toyed with the notion of the New World Order what caused Americans to retreat from that notion? What foreign policy ideals replaced the New World Order? 5. Neither Republicans nor Democrats had the ability or vision to redefine American politics in the 1990s. Why? Lecture Strategies Ultimately the lecture is where you impart, or profess, your knowledge for the benefit of your students. These strategies were designed around the textbook and if your classroom strategy is to use the 221
organization of the text to organize your course content, these lecture ideas may prove helpful. However, if you lecture around themes please see the section entitled Thematic Lecture Topics. You may find that you are more comfortable with and your students are more responsive to a combination of the two. Questions and uncertainties at the end of the twentieth century. The Cold War ended with the disintegration of the Soviet Union, communist eastern European nations evolved into republics, and in the end the United States reigned as the world s superpower. The single-most important foreign policy concern of the last fifty years of the twentieth century ended without the oft-predicted big bang. What caused the Soviet Union to disintegrate? Did the Soviet Union fall apart on its own or did the United States defeat it or hasten its inevitable demise? Was the Cold War as dangerous as we had been led to believe? Was it so dangerous that we had to resort to violations of citizens constitutional rights? Did the Cold War and the defense industry postpone the post World War II economic recession? These evaluations influenced the development of President Bush s New World Order as the nation adjusted to the loss of a monolithic enemy. Complicating the development of contemporary foreign policy is that the monolithic enemy nation had been replaced with numerous smaller enemies, some known and others not, who may be more dangerous. How did the experiences of the last fifty years influence the implementation of the New World Order and America s global presence? Have your students evaluate Desert Storm and its celebrated 100 hours of combat in light of late twentieth century wars. Was it a win for the United States? Central to the last decades of the century was economic change. What is the postindustrial economy and how will it influence the future? Following President Reagan s administration, his vice president, George Bush, was elected president. The Reagan Revolution was ended but certain issues continued to confront Americans. Diversity was the watch word whether it was confronted in college and university classrooms or in managing affairs between native born and immigrant Americans. Minority groups continued to struggle for rights and for a piece of the economy. What will be the effect of the Clinton presidency? Will the economic gains of the 1990s be over-shadowed by scandal? What caused the economy to decline so rapidly in 2000? The last chapter, the last days of the course may be the opportune time to conclude themes you have developed over the course. What do we know of the past that can help us understand the present? Penguin Classics For a compelling discussion of the role of technology, the media, and democracy see Lawrence K. Grossman, The Electronic Republic: Reshaping Democracy in the Information Age, New York: Penguin Books, 1995. Using this book as a supplemental reader in this last chapter of the course may help your students see that democracy is a continuous process and that the American people are members a group in which they, too, are members. Grossman also looks at the potential consequences of the electronic age as they effect individual liberty and free enterprise. 222