Scientific Revolution

Scientific Revolution

Scientific Thought in 1500 Based on ancient and medieval ideas Religion/Church Based on Aristotle s principles Belief in a motionless, static Earth at the center of the universe 10 crystal spheres moved around Earth Difference b/w celestial spheres and Earth Offered an understandable explanation for what people saw Fit in with Christian doctrine Science is just a branch of religion, reinforced religion

Arguments for Aristotle Heavens are in the realm of God must be perfect, no blemishes Bible stories state Earth is static God created Earth in his own image must be center of universe, significant Fixed stars are everlasting and unchanging others are optical illusions

Causes of Scientific Revolution Medieval Universities provided framework Incorporated philosophy into the curriculum Critically think about scientific problems Some monarchs supported science Louis XIV and French Academy Renaissance stimulated science by rediscovering ancient mathematics Patrons supported scientists Better ways of obtaining knowledge about the world Navigation manuals exploring Gresham College and Royal Society of London Improved tools telescopes, sextants Improved the scientific method Empirical, experimental research Deductive reasoning Graph equations

Role of Religion All religions opposed Copernicus theories to some extent Initially Protestant and Jewish leaders were more hostile than Catholics Exceptions: Netherlands, Denmark England Royal Society After Galileo s trial Catholics became more hostile Many scientists thought their work exalted God Newton devout Christian believed he was explaining God s message

Nicolaus Copernicus Polish clergyman and astronomer Overturned the Medieval view Earth revolved around sun Heliocentric Theory - sun is at the center of universe Conflicted with church Dedicated work to Pope

Tycho Brahe Danish noble Built an observatory to study heavenly bodies Collected data on planetary movements Planets revolve around sun, sun and planets revolve around Earth

Johannes Kepler German 3 laws of planetary motion: Planetary orbits are elliptical Planets do not move at a uniform speed Time for orbit depends on distance from sun Proved mathematically that sun is at center Destroyed Aristotle

Galileo Galilei Italian math professor Discovered the laws of motion using the experimental method Acceleration experiment Law of inertia object moves in continuous motion unless stopped by some external force Made his own telescope 4 moons of Jupiter Moon is not smooth Tried for heresy but he recanted

English Synthesized the integral parts into a whole Integrated astronomy of Copernicus with the physics of Galileo Stood on the shoulders of giants Set of mathematical principles to explain motion Law of Universal Gravitation Every body in the universe attracts every other body in a mathematical relationship Force depends on size of object and the distance between them Newton

Francis Bacon English politician and writer New knowledge = empirical, experimental research Inductive reasoning use logic, collect data, compare and analyze Bring data together, make conclusions

Rene Descartes French philosopher Analytic geometry Cartesian Duality world is made up of the physical and spiritual Deductive reasoning reduce to mind or matter Bacon + Descartes scientific method

Andreas Vesalius founder of modern human anatomy William Harvey blood is pumped through the veins by the heart Robert Hooke founder of the cell Robert Boyle modern chemistry Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen Antoine Lavoisier - Combustion Zacharias Janssen first microscope

Anton van Leeuwenhoek microbiology, bacteria in red blood cells Evangelista Torricelli - barometer Gabriel Fahrenheit - mercury thermometer Anders Celsius Celsius scale Edward Jenner vaccination for smallpox

Consequences Helped create the international scientific community new social group New way of obtaining knowledge - Development of the scientific method Few economic/social consequences in the beginning more of an intellectual revolution

THE ENLIGHTENMENT

IMPACT OF THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION Before 1500, what was true or false was based on ancient Greek/Roman authors or Bible Scientists beliefs did not match ancient beliefs Old ideas are replaced with new theories = Scientific Revolution Question Everything! Use reason in the area of science now apply to all aspects of life

CRISIS IN EUROPEAN THOUGHT 1) Crisis for the religious Aristotle is disproved! Religious wars is religious unity really necessary? 2) No real truths can religion truth ever be known with absolute certainty? 3) Travel Literature shows many different beliefs and customs who is right or wrong? 4) Locke human development is shaped by education and social institutions Humans are not born with certain ways of thinking

THE ENLIGHTENMENT (LATE 1600S TO 1700S) Age of Reason an intellectual revolution Geared toward upper and middle classes 3 CONCEPTS Science and reason can explain everything Nothing accepted on faith Rationalism Scientific method explains society and nature Progress

WHY DOES IT MATTER NOW? Freedoms and some forms of government in many countries today are a result of Enlightenment thinking Era where man transitioned from being chained by the accepted beliefs of the church to being free to think for themselves!

Old Way of Thinking New Way of Thinking Superstition Rituals Accepted beliefs of Church Ignorance Reason Creativity Progress More opportunities for the talented, hardworking, intelligent

BEGAN IN FRANCE WHY? French was the international language of the educated classes Cultural leader, wealth, more people Not as many restraints Philosophes asked many fundamental philosophical questions about life Spread messages through satire and double meanings Novels, plays, histories, dictionaries, etc. The Public educated upper and comfortable middle classes

THOMAS HOBBES All humans are naturally selfish and wicked Without government to keep order, there would be a war of every man against every man Leviathan

THOMAS HOBBES (CONT). Social Contract agreement between people and government, involving rights and responsibilities To escape war, people need to give up rights to a ruler In exchange for rights, people get law and order People DO NOT have the right to rebel, no matter how unjust Monarch s responsibility to protect people from themselves

JOHN LOCKE People are naturally reasonable and moral Tabula Rasa blank slate at birth Learn from experience Essay Concerning Human Understanding Second Treatise of Civil Government - People have natural rights belonging to all that govt should protect life, liberty, property

JOHN LOCKE (CONT). Social Contract needed to keep order Government s responsibility to protect natural rights People s right to make sure government is limited and powers are acceptable to all citizens If government fails in duties, people s right to overthrow People can choose their government power comes from the consent of the people foundation of democracy

BERNARD DE FONTENELLE (FRENCH) Stressed the idea of progress don t look back to ancients Made science witty and entertaining for a broad nonscientific audience Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds Skeptical of absolute truth and organized religion

PIERRE BAYLE (FRENCH) French Huguenot expelled by Louis XIV Historical and Critical Dictionary Skeptic Nothing can be known beyond all doubt especially religious truth Humanity's best hope open-minded toleration

MONTESQUIEU (FRENCH) Persian Letters Persian travelers who criticize European customs and practices Spirit of Laws Compared governments Separation of powers Checks and balances Liked England s govt

FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET VOLTAIRE Imprisoned in the Bastille Royal historian in France Humans cannot govern themselves Best hope a good monarch Challenged Catholic theology God - Great Clockworker built it, then let it run Freedom of religion and speech Candide

MADAME D CHATELET Companion to Voltaire Passion for science Excluded because of her sex Translated Newton s work into French

DIDEROT AND D ALEMBERT Editors of the 17 volume Encyclopedia Collection of articles Summed up the new world-view Banned by Church put on Index Anyone who read or bought it - excommunication

THE LATER ENLIGHTENMENT More rigid, dogmatic systems Baron Paul d Holbach humans are machines completely determined by outside forces System of Nature Atheist Free will, God, immorality of soul foolish myths David Hume human mind is a bundle of impressions senses Undermines Enlightenment use of reason Marie-Jean Caritat and Jean Jacques Rousseau

MARIE-JEAN CARITAT THE MARQUIS DE CONDORCET Fought slavery Society of the Friends of Blacks Progress of the Human Mind 9 stages of human progress had already occurred 10 th - perfection

ROUSSEAU Attacked Enlightenment ideas Reason and civilization destroys the individual Must also rely on emotion and instinct Social Contract General will interests of the people (not necessarily the majority) Govt should make decisions based on general will

IMMANUEL KANT Freedom of the press Wrote What is the Enlightenment?

THE SPREAD OF IDEAS Market for books grew Popular titles on various subjects Illegal book trade books that denounce political figures or are pornographic Reading Revolution - nature of reading changes individual and silent Call for autonomy of the written word no censorship Salons social gatherings of intellectuals In the homes of rich women Madame Geoffrin Involved discussion and debate

ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISM

ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISM Most Enlightenment thinkers thought political change came from above from the king/queen Monarchy so deeply rooted can t get rid of it completely Absolute rulers had mixed results ruling in an enlightened manner

FREDERICK THE GREAT OF PRUSSIA Not like his father the Soldier King Liked poetry and the arts Tried to run away with best friend at age 18 Caught and was forced to watch as his best friend was beheaded

FREDERICK THE GREAT OF PRUSSIA Built on the accomplishments of his father When Maria Theresa became Empress of Austria, others swarmed her land War of Austrian Succession Frederick won Silesia from Maria Theresa during the War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Doubled population and made Prussia powerful He fought successfully to defend Prussia from external threats. 7 Years War (1756-1763) everyone attacked Prussia (except England who defended them) Peter III of Russia called off attack

FREDERICK THE GREAT OF PRUSSIA Allowed religious freedom Promoted education-no censorship Legal reform laws simplified, no torture, judges decided cases quickly and impartially Reconstructed agriculture and industry He was unwilling to change Prussia s social structure Rejected calls for civil rights for Jews Moses Mendelssohn spoke out for Jewish rights, reason can strengthen religion Jews lived in ghettos, couldn t participate in activities, could be expelled at any moment

CATHERINE THE GREAT OF RUSSIA German princess but related to the Romanovs of Russia Chosen to be wife of Peter III Was quiet in the beginning and studied Enlightenment thought Peter came to throne and ordered off attack of Frederick II (Prussia) during 7 Years War Catherine conspired with military leaders to depose Peter III in a palace revolution Her lover, Gregory Orlov, and his brothers then murdered Peter

CATHERINE THE GREAT OF RUSSIA Imported Western culture to Russia Imported Western architects, sculptors, musicians and intellectuals Patronized philosophes Voltaire, Diderot Domestic reform better laws, no torture, religious toleration, improved education, strengthened local govt. The Pale of Settlement region set aside for Jews to live

RUSSIA Pugachev s rebellion Emelian Pugachev (Cossack) led uprising of serfs Proclaimed himself the true tsar and declared serfdom, taxes, and army service abolished Slaughtered landlords & officials Captured and savagely executed Put an end to Catherine s efforts to reform serfdom gave nobles absolute control over serfs Expansion of Russia Split up Poland between Russia, Prussia, Austria

AUSTRIAN HABSBURGS Maria Theresa (1740-1780) Limited power of papacy in her realm Administrative reforms, revamped tax system Improved agricultural population (serfs) Joseph II (1780-1790) Joseph II pursued reforms aggressively Religious toleration to Protestants and Jews Abolished serfdom His rapid reforms sent Austria into turmoil and, after Joseph s death, his brother Leopold II was forced to repeal his radical edicts.

ABSOLUTISM IN FRANCE Louis XV Louis XIV s great-grandson 5 years old Duke of Orleans rules in the meantime Nobility made a comeback High courts of France (parlements) became a check on absolute power Evaluated monarch s laws before they are given force Financial difficulties (wars) forced French monarchs to tax people regardless of social class Parlement of Paris rejected taxes Louis had to Absolutely demolish them! Hired Rene de Maupeou as chancellor to crush the judges Abolished Parlements and exiled judges Created a new docile parlement Louis XVI weak and eager to please all reforms taken back

OVERALL INFLUENCE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT French absolutism declined - weak Eastern and east-central Europe ruler must make reforms Absolutist monarchs wanted reforms that would strengthen the state Humane laws = productive people = better country Stronger state = more power internationally Catherine nobility Frederick status quo Joseph peasants