People s Response to Disasters in the Philippines

People s Response to Disasters in the Philippines

Disaster Studies The Palgrave Disaster Studies series was created in support of the analysis of the social impacts and consequences of hazards and disasters on an international scale. Because it is no longer entirely appropriate to restrict this field of inquiry to Sociology, Disaster Studies also looks to scholars in Anthropology, Social Psychology, Political Science, Economics, Public Policy and Administration, and Geography to support its endeavor. This interdisciplinary scope includes disaster-generated demands such as disaster preparedness, response, reconstruction, recovery, mitigation, high reliability organizations and networks, and collective emergent behaviors such as rumors, protests, spontaneous evacuations, convergence of people and materials to the site of disasters. Other topics of interest are studies of the social consequences and long-term effects of catastrophes such as the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and the 2011 earthquake and tsunamis in the northern coast of Japan; as well as the validity of disaster statistics and the economic impact of catastrophic events. As the concept of catastrophe gains increasing attention from the international scholarly community, this timely series provides a home for the most innovative work in Disaster Studies today. Series Editor: Benigno E. Aguirre, University of Delaware, USA People s Response to Disasters in the Philippines: Vulnerability, Capacities, and Resilience JC Gaillard

People s Response to Disasters in the Philippines Vulnerability, Capacities, and Resilience JC Gaillard

PEOPLE S RESPONSE TO DISASTERS IN THE PHILIPPINES Copyright JC Gaillard, 2015. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2015 978-1-137-48428-4 All rights reserved. First published in 2015 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN in the United States a division of St. Martin s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave and Macmillan are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-50345-2 ISBN 978-1-137-48429-1 (ebook) DOI 10.1057/9781137484291 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gaillard, J. C., author. [People s response to disasters] People s response to disasters in the Philippines : vulnerability, capacities and resilience / J.C. Gaillard. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: Examines the root causes of people s vulnerability, capacities, and resilience in facing a wide range of different hazards. Gaillard examines people s resilience in the aftermath of disasters, with a particular analysis of traditional societies and urban communities and the role of government policies, notably resettlement through geographical relocation. Gaillard successively addresses the roles of the structural features of the Philippine society, individuals risk perception, and the nature of people s livelihoods. He underscores the Filipinos capacities to face natural hazards and disasters and suggests ways forward for integrating such capacities, including those of the most marginalized groups, in activities intended to prevent and cope with disasters -- Provided by publisher. 1. Disaster relief Social aspects Philippines. I. Title. HV555.P6G35 2015 363.34 809599--dc23 2014028625 A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library. Design by Newgen Knowledge Works (P) Ltd., Chennai, India. First edition: February 2015 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Contents List of Figures List of Tables Preface Acknowledgments List of Acronyms vii xi xiii xv xix One Introduction 1 Part I Looking for the Root Causes of Disasters in the Philippines: Unfolding People s Vulnerability 19 Two Why Did 1,400 People Die in Late 2004? 21 Three Does Risk Perception Really Matter? 39 Four Vulnerability and Livelihoods 57 Part II No One Is a Helpless Victim! People s Capacities to Face Hazards and Disasters 67 Five Coping with Natural Hazards 69 Six Integrating Capacities in Disaster Risk Reduction 81 Seven Mainstreaming Marginalized Groups and Their Capacities 95 Part III From Disaster to Development? People s Resilience in the Aftermath of Disaster 107 Eight Overcoming the Mt Pinatubo Disaster 109 Nine Resilience, Marginalization, and Livelihoods 125

vi / contents Ten Post-Disaster Resettlement 143 Eleven Conclusion: Toward Integrated Disaster Risk Reduction 157 Bibliography 165 Index 189

Figures 1.1 Structure of the pre-2010 institutional framework to face disasters in the Philippines 6 1.2 Yearly number of major disasters associated with natural hazards in the Philippines 9 1.3 Triangle of vulnerability showing how exogenous structural constraints, marginalization and access to resources shape people s vulnerability in facing natural hazards 12 1.4 Circle of capacities showing endogenous resources that compose people s capacities in facing natural hazards 14 1.5 Distribution of natural hazards in the Philippines and location of the different study areas 16 2.1 Location of the province of Quezon in Luzon 22 2.2 Geographic setting and areas affected by floods and landslides in the municipalities of General Nakar, Infanta, and Real in Quezon 25 2.3 Daily rainfall for Infanta and other neighboring meteorological stations from November 14 to December 4, 2004 27 2.4 Logs deposited by floodwaters in Infanta 28 2.5 Approximated decrease in forest cover around General Nakar, Real, and Infanta between 1950 and 2000 29 2.6 Growth in the population of General Nakar, Infanta, and Real between 1948 and 2000 31 3.1 Location of Mt Pinatubo and main lahar channels and other destructive phenomena associated with its 1991 eruption 42 3.2 Hazard map for the Pasig-Potrero River basin, showing the location of Bacolor, Pampanga, and the alignment of the diking system as of 1998 43 3.3 Mental representation by the people of Bacolor of the places threatened in case of lahars, as of early 1998 46 3.4 A house raised on concrete posts behind another habitation buried by Mt Pinatubo lahars in Cabambangan, Bacolor, in December 1997 47

viii / figures 3.5 Streamers displayed in Bacolor town proper at the end of 1995. Uli ning beitan at lugud, eque alacwan ing Baculud means because it is my birth place and because I love it, I will never abandon Bacolor in Kapampangan language 52 3.6 Statue of J.C. Soto, a local hero of Bacolor, exhumed in front of the Bacolor public market in November 1999 52 4.1 Location of Borongan on the island of Samar 59 4.2 Motorized outrigger boat used for deep-sea fishing in Borongan in August 2006. Here it is further used for transporting copra 63 4.3 Traditional house made of bamboo and palm leaves on the island of Divinubo, Borongan, in August 2006 64 5.1 Aerial view of Masantol showing the location of Sagrada and other neighboring villages in January 2010 70 5.2 Rate of land subsidence in Sagrada. This pump well was drilled in 1997. (a) Between 1997 and 2006, the level of the ground subsided by approximately 3 cm. (b) Between 2006 and 2010, the level of the ground further subsided by 2 cm 72 5.3 Fish pond embankment raised above its original level (as indicated by the top of the bamboo and net protective structure) to face increasing flooding in Sagrada in July 2008 76 5.4 On the right side, the one-storey house of a poor household stands on wood posts a few centimeters above the ground in July 2008. On the left side, the four-storey home of a rich family is built on a cemented embankment almost one meter high 78 6.1 Members of the local communities plotting landmarks on the P3DM built in Masantol, in August 2008 86 6.2 A section of the P3DM built in Masantol showing houses and housing materials (small cylinder push pins), public buildings (big cylinder push pins) and other facilities (ball-like push pins) and vulnerable people (flags), in August 2008 88 6.3 Disaster risk reduction plan designed for the village of Sapang Kawayan, Masantol, in September 2009 89 7.1 Location of Macawayan and flood-prone areas in Irosin, Sorsogon 97 7.2 Young baklas participating in the P3DM activity in Macawayan, Irosin, in January 2010 99 7.3 Students from the City College of San Fernando plotting flood-prone areas over community features using pushpins, tailor pins, and yarns of different colors in August 2009 102 7.4 Participatory disaster risk map built by the student of the community City College of San Fernando in August 2009. 103

figures / ix 8.1 Spatial redistribution of the Aeta communities in the Pasig and Sacobia river basins subsequent to the eruption of Mt Pinatubo in 1991, as of 2001 110 8.2 Aetas alongside Kapampangans selling indigenous souvenirs to local and foreign tourists in front of the duty-free shops of Clark Special Economic Zone in November 2000 115 8.3 Newly established fence as a marker of territorial boundaries in San Martin, Bamban, in December 2007 120 9.1 Process of marginalization of those who suffer from disaster (adapted from Susman, O Keefe, and Wisner, 1983) 126 9.2 Location of the Payatas dumpsite in Quezon City 127 9.3 Shanties buried by trash at the foot of the Payatas dumpsite in July 2000 128 9.4 Daily incomes of surveyed households affected by the July 2000 trash slide in Payatas n=30 in 2000 and 2007 Note: PhP 45 = ~ US$ 1 133 9.5 Daily income of surveyed households affected by the July 2000 trash slide in Kasiglahan n=30 in 2000 and 2007 Note: PhP 45 = ~ US$ 1 135 9.6 Livelihoods, pre-disaster vulnerability, post-disaster recovery, and the process of marginalization 138 10.1 Shop in the Bulaon resettlement site named after San Antonio, which is the village of Bacolor where the shop and house owner originates from 149 10.2 Conflicting interests in the Bulaon resettlement site in August 2004. The sign in the foreground features the mayor of Bacolor, Buddy Dungca, while the sign in the background displays the circular logo of the municipality of San Fernando where the Bulaon resettlement site is located 150 10.3 Sketches of floor plans of (a), a typical Kapampangan house; and of (b), the common resettlement house in Balaybay and Bulaon relocation sites 153 11.1 Road map for integrating knowledge, actions and stakeholders for disaster risk reduction 162

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Tables 2.1 Characteristics and impact of the late-2004 cyclones and tropical depressions in Eastern Luzon, Philippines 24 2.2 Land tenure in the municipalities of General Nakar, Infanta and Real in 1991 33 2.3 Proportion of small farms of less than one hectare in the municipalities of General Nakar, Infanta and Real in 1991 33 2.4 HDI of the main provinces of origin of in-migrants to Quezon 34 3.1 Damages and casualties of the 1991 eruption and subsequent lahars of Mt Pinatubo, Philippines, as of 1999 41 3.2 Perception of risk associated with volcanic hazards among the people of Bacolor, Pampanga, in early 1998 46 3.3 Main measures adopted in early 1998 by the people of Bacolor, Pampanga, in the face of volcanic hazards 47 3.4 Evacuation destination planned in early 1998 by the people of Bacolor, Pampanga, in the event of lahar flows 48 3.5 Sources of information on volcanic hazards of the people of Bacolor in early 1998 49 3.6 Main occupation of people residing in Bacolor, Pampanga in early 1998 50 5.1 Major activities undertaken as part of the Pampanga Delta Development project 74 5.2 Strategies adopted by the people of Sagrada to cope with increasing flooding 76 6.1 Main characteristics of the different forms of participatory mapping used for disaster risk reduction 82 6.2 Principles, advantages and disadvantages of P3DM for DRR 92 8.1 Main non-aeta cultural inputs in the Aeta s culture following the 1991 eruption of Mt Pinatubo and the subsequent redistribution of the population 117

xii / tables 9.1 Daily incomes of households affected by the July 2000 trash slide in Payatas 128 10.1 Assessment of the Bulaon and Balaybay resettlement sites by lahars relocatees in August 2004 148 10.2 Relationships maintained by Bulaon and Balaybay resettlers with their native villages in August 2004 149

Preface This publication is the slightly revised international edition of a book initially published in the Philippines in 2011 by the Center for Kapampangan Studies (Gaillard, 2011). It compiles studies that span over 15 years of academic research and practical work in the Philippines. Most have already been published as standalone pieces in varied academic journals (see Acknowledgments), but this book collates all of them in an integrated volume providing a comprehensive overview of people s response to disasters in the Philippines through the lenses of the three key concepts of vulnerability, capacities, and resilience. Since there are only a few books available on the topic, we hope that this is a useful contribution to the literature. It is worth noting that all these studies and projects were conducted prior to the passing of Republic Act 10121 in May 2010, which has changed the landscape of disaster risk reduction in the Philippines (Republic of the Philippines, 2010). If its conclusion briefly reflects upon the new legal and institutional environment, the present book does not ambition to provide a detailed analysis of its strengths and limitations. In fact, it is likely to be a bit premature to engage in a thorough study of the impact of Republic Act 10121 since many local government units have not yet fully taken advantage of the opportunities provided by the new institutional framework. An evident sign of this is the tremendous, yet unequal, impact of cyclone Yolanda in November 2013. It seems that the few local government units, such as that of San Francisco in Cebu, which have fully embraced the new pathways toward disaster risk reduction offered by Republic Act 10121, have overcome the event with little casualties (McElroy, 2013) but more research is needed to confirm such hypothesis. This is however beyond the scope of the book. Indeed, despite the overall significance of the Yolanda disaster throughout the country and its resonance worldwide, it was a deliberate choice to not have confronted this most recent event in the studies compiled in this book. The first reason is to avoid putting too much emphasis on largescale disasters (a few are already covered in this book) at the expense of neglecting the myriad of small-scale events that affect millions of Filipinos

xiv / preface everyday and whose long-term cumulated impacts are hidden but very significant (Gaillard et al., 2014). The second reason is to stay away from the present researchers gold rush observed in the affected areas and all the ethical issues that have arisen through such practices in the immediate aftermath of disasters. In this context, the present book aims to offer a realistic picture of people s everyday response to disasters in the Philippines rather than a diaporama of a series of extra-ordinary events, while still recognizing that the latter matter too. As Bankoff (2003: 178) ably stated a decade ago, hazards and disasters are a frequent life experience, and consequently one where the chronic threat of such events has been normalised as an integral part of culture in the Philippines. It is the overarching intention of this book to stress the importance of the everyday over the extraordinary. Ultimately, the book is written not only for an academic audience but aims to also be useful for policymakers and practitioners in the Philippines and elsewhere in the world who deal with disasters on an everyday basis and whose job is to reduce future risks. Mabuhay, JC Gaillard Auckland, New Zealand June 15, 2014 Feedback and comments to this book would be greatly appreciated. Please contact the author by email at: jc.gaillard@auckland.ac.nz

Acknowledgments First and foremost, the republication of this book by Palgrave Macmillan is only possible thanks to the permission and support from the Center for Kapampangan Studies in the Philippines. I therefore extend my gratitude to its director, Robby Tantingco, and staff, especially Myra Paz, who helped with the paper work toward copyright agreement. Trust and support from Palgrave Macmillan, especially Lani Oshima and Mara Berkoff, have been invaluable and are deeply acknowledged. Obviously, opinions expressed in this book are only mine and do not engage the responsibility of the publisher. Many thanks too to Katherine Hore and Anthony Gampell (both my graduate students at The University of Auckland) who have compiled the index. Studies compiled in this book were funded by a number of agencies and academic programs that deserve due recognition: the Centre International pour la Formation et les Echanges en Géosciences (chapter 3); the Duo France exchange program, the Université de Bretagne Occidentale and the French Embassy in Manila (chapter 4); the ProVention Consortium and the Asian Center for Disaster Preparedness (chapter 6); the Comité Catholique contre la Faim et pour le Développement and the Integrated Rural Development Foundation (chapter 7); and the Ministère des Affaires Etrangères France (chapters 3 and 8). Institutional support has been provided by the Université de Savoie, Université de Grenoble, UMR 5194 Pacte CNRS, The University of Auckland and, last but not least, the University of the Philippines Diliman to which I owe so much. I also extend my deepest appreciation to all colleagues, friends, and students with whom I conducted field work and/or had inspiring discussions over the past 15 years. I particularly think of my thoughtful partner in crime Jake Rom D. Cadag (Université Paul Valery Montpellier III and University of the Philippines Diliman), who has been involved in many of the studies compiled in this book. Many others appear as coauthors of the articles that provided most of the materials for this book (see Acknowledgments). I also owe many thanks to Frédéric Leone (Université Paul Valery Montpellier III), Robert D Ercole (Institut de Recherche pour le

xvi / acknowledgments Développement), and Jean-Pierre Asté (GIPEA) who provided me with the opportunity to come and do research in the Philippines back in 1996 97. Over the past few years, I have also greatly benefited from fantastic conversations with my two coeditors of the Routledge Handbook of Hazards and Disaster Risk Reduction, Ben Wisner (Global Network for Disaster Reduction) and Ilan Kelman (University College London). In the Philippines, I am indebted to a number of people who have been involved in some way in these studies, and offered assistance and advice. I think of my mentor in Kapampangan studies, Mike Pangilinan aka Siuálâ ding Meángûbié, Prof. Lino Dizon (Tarlac State University), Joel Mallari (Holy Angel University), Prof. Meliton Juanico (University of the Philippines Diliman), Prof. Darlene Occeña-Gutierrez (University of the Philippines Diliman), Prof. Soledad Natalia Dalisay (University of the Philippines Diliman), Prof. Nestor Castro (University of the Philippines Diliman), Prof. Emmanuel Luna (University of the Philippines Diliman), Prof. Fernando Siringan (University of the Philippines Diliman), Prof. Kelvin Rodolfo (University of the Philippines Diliman and University of Chicago), Prof. Victor Paz (University of the Philippines Diliman), Dr. Eusebio Dizon (National Museum of the Philippines), and Prof. Ma. Florina Orillos (De la Salle University). Thank you, too, to all the people with the Department of Geography of the University of the Philippines Diliman and the Center for Disaster Preparedness, especially Maria Fellizar-Cagay and Mayfourth Luneta, as well as to Eugene Orejas and other staff of Concern Inc., the former Mount Pinatubo Commission and the City College of San Fernando, without whom the studies compiled in this book would not have pushed through. I also want to extend a sincere thank you to all communities that have been part of these studies and projects for their inspiration and courage in facing natural hazards and disasters. These include the people of Bacolor (Pampanga), Borongan (Eastern Samar), Masantol (Pampanga) especially former vice mayor Marcello Lacap, Jr. and Tarik Soliman High School former principal Rowena Quiambao Irosin (Sorsogon), San Fernando (Pampanga), Payatas (Quezon City), Kasiglahan (Rizal), Bulaon (Pampanga), Balaybay (Zambales), San Martin, and other Aeta settlements of the Sacobia and Pasig river basins (Pampanga and Tarlac). Finally, many thanks to Cyrene, my wife, and Amian, my son, for their continuous support despite frequent absences. Additional Notes Some sections of chapter 1 were published in Gaillard JC (2010) Vulnerability, capacity, and resilience: perspectives for climate and development policy. Journal of International Development 22(2): 218 232.

acknowledgments / xvii Some sections of chapter 2 were published in: Gaillard JC, Liamzon C. C, and Villanueva J. D. (2007) Natural disaster? A retrospect into the causes of the late-2004 typhoon disaster in Eastern Luzon, Philippines. Environmental Hazards 7(4): 257 270. Some sections of chapter 3 were published in: Gaillard JC (2008) Alternative paradigms of volcanic risk perception: The case of Mt Pinatubo in the Philippines. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172(3 4): 315 328. Some sections of chapter 4 were published in: Gaillard JC, Maceda E. A., Stasiak E., Le Berre I., and Espaldon M. A. O. (2009) Sustainable livelihoods and people s vulnerability in the face of coastal hazards. Journal of Coastal Conservation 13(2 3): 119 129. Some sections of chapter 5 were published in: Gaillard JC, Pangilinan M. R. M., Cadag J. R,. and Le Masson V. (2008) Living with increasing floods: Insights from a rural Philippine community. Disaster Prevention and Management 17(3): 383 395. Some sections of chapter 6 were published in: Cadag J. R. D., and Gaillard JC (2012) Integrating knowledge and actions in disaster risk reduction: the contribution of participatory mapping. Area 44(1): 100 109. Some sections of chapter 7 were published in: Gaillard JC (2011) Integrating non-heterosexual groups into disaster risk reduction in the Philippines. In B. Wisner, JC Gaillard., and I. Kelman (eds.) Handbook of hazards and disaster risk reduction. Routledge, London, p. 429. Gaillard JC and Pangilinan M. L. C. J. D. (2010) Participatory mapping for raising disaster risk awareness among the youth. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 18(3): 175 179. Some sections of chapter 8 were published in: Gaillard JC (2006) Traditional communities in the face of natural hazards: The 1991 Mt Pinatubo eruption and the Aetas of the Philippines. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters 24(1): 5 43. Some sections of chapter 9 were published in: Gaillard JC and Cadag J. R. (2009) From marginality to further marginalization: Experiences from the victims of the July 2000 Payatas trash slide in the Philippines. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies 2(3): 195 213. Some sections of chapter 10 were published in: Gaillard JC (2008) Differentiated adjustment to the 1991 Mt Pinatubo resettlement program among lowland ethnic groups of the Philippines. Australian Journal of Emergency Management 23(2): 31 39. Some sections of chapter 11 were published in: Gaillard JC (2010) Vulnerability, capacity, and resilience: perspectives for climate and development policy. Journal of International Development 22(2): 218 232.

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Acronyms BDCC Barangay Disaster Coordinating Council CAB Clark Air Base CBDRR Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction CDCC City Disaster Coordinating Council CDP Center for Disaster Preparedness CRED Centre for Research on Epidemiology of Disasters DA Department of Agriculture DAR Department of Agrarian Reform DENR Department of Environmental and Natural Resources DEPED Department of Education DILG Department of Interior and Local Government DOH Department of Health DPWH Department of Public Works and Highways DRR Disaster Risk Reduction DRRM Disaster Risk Reduction and Management DSWD Department of Social Welfare and Development FGD Focus Group Discussion GIS Geographic Information System HDI Human Development Index IAPAD Integrated Approaches to Participatory Development IFMA Integrated Forest Management Agreement IMF International Monetary Fund IRDF Integrated Rural Development Foundation LGU Local Government Unit MDCC Municipal Disaster Coordinating Council MMDA Metro Manila Development Authority MPC Mt Pinatubo Commission MPDO Municipal Planning and Development Office NCIP National Commission on Indigenous Peoples NDCC National Disaster Coordinating Council NGO Non-Government Organization NHA National Housing Authority NPA New People s Army

xx / acronyms OCD Office of Civil Defense P3DM Participatory 3-Dimensional Mapping PAGASA Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Service Administration PDCC Provincial Disaster Coordinating Council PHIVOLCS Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology PLA Participatory Learning and Action PO People s Organization RDCC Regional Disaster Coordinating Council UN United Nations UNICEF United Nations Children s Fund UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction UP University of the Philippines USAF United States Air Force VCA Vulnerability and Capacity Analysis WTO World Trade Organization