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Chapter 9 The Jeffersonian Era In some ways, Jefferson had two different presidencies. His first term was full of success and accomplishments. His second term was full of failures, and he suffered many setbacks (both politically and personally). In this chapter, you ll see that the Revolution of 1800 never really happened. Jefferson would rule more as a conservative than a liberal.
Chapter 9, Section 1 Marbury v. Madison IN THIS SECTION, YOU WILL... 1. Recognize the importance of the Marbury v. Madison Supreme Court case. 2. Comprehend the concept of judicial review. An important event in the Jefferson presidency that had a long-lasting effect on our political and judicial system would be the Marbury v. Madison Supreme Court case. Unfortunately for Jefferson, this is considered to be one of the biggest failures in Jefferson s first term. In order to understand why this case was so important, let me give you a little bit of context. In early 1801, John Adams (a Federalist) signed a law called the Judiciary Act of 1801. This law significantly increased the size of the judicial branch. Numerous judicial positions were created, and Federalist were being appointed to these jobs by Adams. The Federalists did this because they knew that they were on their way out of office after Jefferson s win in 1800. They figured that because they were losing the legislative and executive branches, they could still control one branch of government. Understandably, Jefferson was not happy with this law. The press would call these appointments by Adams Midnight Judges. One of these appointments 2
was new Supreme Court Chief Justice John Marshall (above). A few of Adams new judges were lost in the transfer of power between the Adams and Jefferson administrations. The letters written were never received by those who they were intended to go to. There was some speculation that Adams people lost these letters and Jefferson s men found them and threw them away. One of the men who was supposed to be appointed was William Marbury (left). Marbury was supposed to become a Justice of the Peace in Washington D.C. He was expecting a letter, and when he got it, he could formally begin his job. But his letter was never received. As a result, Marbury asked for his commissioned letter from the Jefferson administration in 1801. Jefferson and his people claimed ignorance, and said they had no idea where it was. Marbury believed (and rightfully so) that he should have his job, and because of not getting his letter, he decided to sue the Jefferson administration. Consequently, the Marbury v. Madison case entered the court system. It wasn t Marbury v. Jefferson because James Madison, Jefferson s Secretary of State, handled these situations. To summarize, Marbury was claiming that he should have his job, and Jefferson/Madison thought he should not because he never got his commission. Jefferson and Madison also claimed that Adams law was just a political act trying to make a Federalist biased judiciary branch. Under the Judiciary Act of 1789, a case of this nature would go directly to the Supreme Court. In early 1802 and 1803, the Supreme Court heard arguments of this case and deliberated. Because the court was made up of Federalists, the Court believed that Marbury should have his job. On the other hand, there were a number of members in the Court that felt Jefferson would ignore their ruling if they sided with Marbury. They also thought they would look like they were cowering away from the President if they ruled for Marbury. When the Supreme Court handed down the decision, they determined that they would not make a decision on the case at all. They argued that they did not have jurisdiction in this case. Marshall said that the court believed that Marbury had a better case, and he should receive his job. But they also stated that they did not have the right to rule in favor of William Marbury or the president. In addition, they went on to say that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional. They claimed that they were supposed to hear cases that were on appeal, and since this case was not on appeal, they determined that it was unconstitutional. 3
This act of finding a law unconstitutional is called judicial review. Jefferson believed Congress should determine the constitutionality of laws. Judicial review was never stated anywhere in the U.S. Constitution, but the Supreme Court took this precedent and they ve kept this right ever since. To this day, judicial review is the Supreme Court s main responsibility, not determining a person s guilt or innocence. 4
Chapter 9, Section 2 The Louisiana Purchase IN THIS SECTION, YOU WILL... 1. Learn about how the Louisiana Purchase expanded the United States territorially and politically. 2. Read about the interesting demise of Aaron Burr. 3. Comprehend the Election of 1804. The Louisiana Purchase refers to the territory between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. This territory was for a long time controlled by Spain. But in 1802, the Jefferson administration learned that Spain sold this territory to France. The leader of the French at the time of the purchase was Napoleon Bonaparte (left). France hoped that they would make this territory an important part of their empire, and would use it for farmland among other things. When Jefferson learned about this, he immediately became concerned. The fear was that France would not only own this property, but they might also populate and develop this area. Consequently, he thought the French would pose a threat to America. So in the spring of 1803, Jefferson opened negotiations with France to settle the dispute over this territory. He sent Robert Livingston and James Monroe to France to begin formal talks to try and gain at least part of this land. He particularly focused on the southern part so there could be some control over the Mississippi River. 5
After some negotiation, Napoleon surprised Jefferson by offering all of the Louisiana Territory to America. Bonaparte and the United States would sign a treaty and Louisiana would become a part of the U.S. for a mere $15 million. Napoleon decided that the money was more important than the land at this point in time. The purchase of the Louisiana Territory would be one of Jefferson s greatest contributions to American history. It was (and still is) very rare for a country to double in size without losing American lives in a warlike setting. And now, the Louisiana Purchase would open the way for Americans to travel west. Soon, the United States would become the most powerful nation in the world. In the last year of Jefferson s first term, his popularity was very high because of the Louisiana Purchase and other accomplishments. In the Election of 1804, Jefferson would win a huge landslide victory over his Federalist opponent Charles Pinckney. family. When election time rolled around, Burr was defeated. In the aftermath of the election, Burr publicly challenged Hamilton to a duel to defend his name and his family. Hamilton accepted this challenge. On July 11, 1804, they fought a duel and the witnesses there said that Hamilton missed his first shot badly because he thought this duel was just for show. Burr, however, was taking this very seriously. He killed Hamilton and was immediately indicted for murder. Although this duel would not directly affect Jefferson s presidency, his association with Burr at this point could not positively influence him or his party. Jefferson s second term would not be as good as his first, and he would face a demise in popularity. Another part of the 1804 election was a dispute between Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton. Burr decided to run for the governorship of New York because he knew he would be dropped from the Jefferson ticket after the controversy in 1800. During this election, Burr became involved in a heated public fight with Hamilton (Hamilton had campaigned for Burr s opponent). In the midst of this argument, Hamilton said many personal things about Burr, including harsh things about his honesty and his 6
Chapter 9, Section 3 New Problems for Jefferson IN THIS SECTION, YOU WILL... 1. Understand how Jefferson s own party gave him problems. 2. See how Aaron Burr will once again give Jefferson problems. 3. Learn about British impressment and its influence on American ships. Thomas Jefferson s second term as president was not nearly as good as his first. Unfortunately, he faced problems within his own political party. One came from the more liberal part of the Democratic-Republicans. John Randolph, a congressman from Virginia, criticized Jefferson for being too conservative. Randolph and others tried to undermine Jefferson, and make his life very difficult. Another problem for Jefferson would come from Aaron Burr (yet again!). After going to Ohio, Burr became involved in a conspiracy to take control of the Louisiana Territory with the military. He then stated that he wanted to become king of this area. General James Wilkinson helped Burr get people together to actually execute this uprising. But just as this was unfolding, Wilkinson got cold feet and bailed out on Burr. He turned himself in, and alerted the authorities to go catch Aaron Burr. Burr would be caught and arrested for treason in late 1806. His trial would be highly publicized, and the press was all over it. Burr was acquitted. Federalists believed that it was in their best political interests to make sure he was not guilty. Burr did a very good job in telling people different things, and the prosecution had a tough time finding concrete evidence to convict him. Eventually, Burr fled the United States for England, but would return to America at the end of his life. 7
This event was politically damaging and embarrassing for Jefferson, especially since Burr was his vice president during his first term in office. But even worse than this problem was the issue of British impressment of American citizens. In 1805-1806, Europe was still in a state of war. France and its allies were still fighting England. America, however, was neutral. This neutrality would be difficult to maintain in Jefferson s second term. Britain started causing problems for America on the Atlantic. During this time period, the U.S. had more merchant (trade) ships than any country in the world. Once these ships entered European waters, they were in a war zone. Our goal was to still trade in a neutral manner. But the British did not feel that way. They would stop ships, board them, and take property. To make matters worse, they also began to take men off ships, not just property. This process is called impressment. Basically, when the British stopped a ship, they could take off any British citizens if they found any. Then, the men would be taken and processed into the British military to fight in Europe. This process, though, would not always work. The British did not filter through the roster of people on the ship very well after a while, and took up to 2,000 Americans to Europe, not Englishmen. They were violating laws and customs that should not have been broken. Jefferson began to have public pressure build up against him, and people wanted to go to war with England again. But the president didn t do anything; he hoped to avoid problems with England. In June 1807, the impressment problem would escalate, and Jefferson s neutral approach would have to change. During the summer, the U.S.S. Chesapeake (below) was stopped by the British naval vessel H.M.S. Leopard. The Chesapeake was only a few miles away from an American port. The captain of the Leopard stopped the ship, claiming that there were British citizens on the ship that could be impressed into their navy. The Chesapeake commander said there was one British soldier, but the British captain claimed there were four. Instead of resolving the problem peacefully, the H.M.S. Leopard fired upon the Chesapeake, damaging the ship badly. The commander of the Leopard asked again for these men, and he got them. The Chesapeake barely made it back to port. 8
The U.S.S. Chesapeake Affair was a highly publicized event throughout America, and people wanted Jefferson to do something very badly. He could no longer avoid the problem of impressment. Jefferson decided to address the issue head-on. So he signed the Embargo Act. A highly controversial law, the Embargo Act stated that the U.S. would not trade with the entire world. The large majority of our trade was with Europe, and this definitely hurt the American economy. Jefferson believed this act would keep American citizens and property off the Atlantic, and allow us to avoid war. Jefferson also believed this would put economic pressure on Europe. Eventually, the president thought Britain would feel the pressure of not trading with America, and it would force them to change their policies (particularly impressment). Unfortunately, Jefferson s plan backfired. The U.S. had a heavy economic recession in 1808. Unemployment went up, and profits for businesses decreased. By the spring of 1808, people were getting sick of this law. In his last week in office, he signed a bill which repealed the Embargo Act. But, he still signed a law that prohibited trade between the U.S. and France/England. 9
Chapter 9, Section 4 War Tensions Rise IN THIS SECTION, YOU WILL... 1. Learn about the Election of 1808. 2. Read about the causes of War of 1812. Following the precedent set by George Washington, Thomas Jefferson decided not to run for a third term as president. The Federalist Party was very weak in 1808, and the Democratic-Republicans had an opportunity to win the election. They nominated James Madison, who would win in a landslide victory in 1808 and again in 1812. Madison would be a successful, effective president due in large part to the outcome to the War of 1812. When we look at the War of 1812, it s hard to say why it actually happened. In fact, most historians agree that the war was unnecessary, and there there was no good rationale for having it. But, when looking at the causes, there are usually four that are highlighted: 1. Problems with Native Americans on the frontier: Western settlers believed that the British were pushing Indians to rise up against Americans from 1808-1810. 2. Falling agricultural prices: American farmers lost a lot of money. Western farmers came to believe the reason prices were falling was due to the British interference on the Atlantic. 10
3. Territorial expansion: Some Americans believed that if we fought and beat the British, we could gain more territory (particularly in Canada and around the Great Lakes). 4. Psychological motivation: There was an overwhelming feeling in the states which said that people felt the Americans were too dependent on the British. So, if we fought them again and won, the country would be able to gain full independence. In other words, there was unfinished business from 1776. By 1812, there was a majority consensus that America should go to war with England. People who wanted to fight a war were known as hawks; those who were against it were called doves. Most Americans would have fallen into the hawk category. But, historians generally believe that the doves had a better argument that American shouldn t go to war. The doves argued a few things, including: (impressment) on the Atlantic. As a result, there would be a better chance to avoid war and relations between the U.S. and England might improve. In fact, they would formulate some new policies just days before the war would start. But, by June 1812, Congress did declare war on Britain. Just a few months later (as previously stated earlier in this section), Madison would win reelection on the fall of 1812. He beat Federalist candidate DeWitt Clinton. This is significant because the public s popular opinion could be seen through who was being elected. The Federalists were against the war, but the Democratic-Republicans were hawk-ish. And remember, Madison was a Democratic-Republican, thus proving that the majority of Americans were for the war. So now, the president knew that the war had public support. 1. The British had too strong of a military. 2. If America fought the British, we would be indirectly assisting France and help Napoleon. (Remember, Britain was fighting France in Europe. If we had a war, England would have to put resources in America and Europe, causing them to spread themselves too thin.) 3. The British economy was in recession. If America waited, the British might change some of their trade policies and behavior 11
Chapter 9, Section 5 The War of 1812 IN THIS SECTION, YOU WILL... 1. Learn about the War of 1812. The War of 1812 lasted about two and a half years, ending in 1814. America was not prepared to fight, and the war was fought solely as a result of surging nationalism. America was lucky not to have lost the war, and it really came out as a draw (although people at the time felt as if the U.S. won). We ll look at the war in two parts, the first being from 1812-1813. The early six month period of the war was not good for the United States. America attacked British forts and territory in Canada. Every place attacked in Canada, the Americans were defeated, and by the end of 1812, Americans gained no territory. We soon realized that this war was not all it was made out to be. During this time, the British captured Fort Detroit. In 1813, one positive event did occur. U.S. forces wanted to recapture Fort Detroit. The leader of this attack for the Americans would be future president William Henry Harrison (right). There would be a two parts to this military campaign. The first portion would come from the navy. Harrison knew the British navy had to be confronted before sending American troops onto land. So, Captain Oliver Hazard Perry led a force against a superior British naval force. Perry won the Battle of Put-In-Bay. Because of this win, Harrison was 12
able to attack with the army on land. He pursued British forces into Canada in what became known as the Battle of the Thames. Although a military draw, the Americans were able to kill a Native American named Tecumseh. Tecumseh was a significant liaison for the Indians to the British, and the British-Indian alliance against the Americans would be weakened. Up to this point, the British were fighting in Europe as well. However, as time moved along and 1814 began, the war between France and Captain Oliver Hazard Perry England ended. Now, Britain could concentrate more on the war with the Americans. The British would put a lot more resources into fighting the U.S. They would launch a three-pronged campaign in different regions of America. They would attack from Canada into New York, then attack the central Atlantic states (Washington D.C. and Baltimore), and attempt to take control of the Mississippi River. The British thought they could be very successful and force the The first two campaigns (in New York and the central Atlantic) got under way in the late summer of 1814. In New York, the British would send a large army from Canada. The British generals found that the terrain of upstate New York (notoriously mountainous) affected their maneuverability. They were met by American general Alexander Macomb. Macomb had an army of about 3,500 men and created a defensive position against the British near Plattsburgh, New York. Despite being outnumbered almost three to one, the British army could not break through the American defensive position. The Battle of Plattsburgh lasted several days, and was considered to be a tactical draw. But it was a strategic victory for the Americans because the British decided to retreat back to Canada. The second part of the three-pronged attack would occur in the central Atlantic states near the Chesapeake Bay region. Again, the British led a large army with their navy. The navy sailed in around August 1814 right up the Potomac River. After getting off the ships, their army headed straight to Washington D.C. When they arrived, the captured the city and burned down numerous structures including the White House. Obviously, this was an embarrassing loss for the Americans and a huge win for the British. They had just captured the capital of the United States. Americans into a surrender, along with taking a lot of land. However, this campaign would not be successful because of bad leadership on the British side. 13
After going through Washington, the British moved on to Baltimore. In mid-september, they attempted to bombard Fort McHenry, which was heavily defended. After a lengthy artillery battle, the British were defeated. After this battle, they retreated out of the Chesapeake area. It was also during this time that Francis Scott Key (left) wrote the Star Spangled Banner as a poem for the action he experienced during the battle at Fort McHenry. Eventually, this would become our national anthem. Within a couple of months after Fort McHenry, negotiations heated up to end the war. They began during the spring of 1814, but were not that serious because the British wanted to see how their military efforts would go. But after the Battle of Plattsburgh, the British realized the war was not going as they had hoped. So in the fall and early winter of 1814, they decided they would negotiate a peace with the Americans. The Star Spangled Banner Instrumental of our national anthem with lyrics (first verse of the poem only) below. Oh, say can you see by the dawn's early light What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming? Whose broad stripes and bright stars thru the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming? And the rocket's red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there. Oh, say does that star-spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? 14
Chapter 9, Section 6 The Treaty of Ghent IN THIS SECTION, YOU WILL... 1. Recognize how the War of 1812 ended. 2. See how the war had two losers, and no real winners. 3. Understand the importance of the Battle of New Orleans. As previously stated, most historians who studied the War of 1812 agreed that it shouldn t have been fought. This idea is epitomized by the Treaty of Ghent (negotiations were held in Belgium). This treaty is what we d call a status-quo treaty; in other words, it didn t really change anything. Nobody gained any new territory, and neither side had to pay reparations to the other. In fact, there was no declared winner or loser; the treaty basically said the war was a draw. So in late 1814, the fighting was to stop. And the Treaty of Ghent was signed December 25, 1814. This mandated that the war be officially over (in a legal sense). However, one more battle was fought in New Orleans that proved to be very significant. This battle was a result of the third British prong, and did not get under way until December 1814. The British general in this campaign was Edward Pakenham. He had a 12,000 man army that sailed from the Caribbean to the mouth of the Mississippi River in New Orleans. Pakenham was confronted by a smaller American force led by General Andrew Jackson. He had just under 5,000 men. At the time, Jackson was not very famous. But after this battle he became very popular as an American hero, and would become president in the future. For two weeks, the armies did nothing but face off. On January 8, 1815 Pakenham decided to launch an offensive against the Americans (the soldiers had no idea that a treaty was signed). Pakenham believed that the Americans were weak and cowardly, and that if they were faced by this large, professional army, 15
they would flee their positions. Jackson, though, had his army prepared and the British were demolished. They lost over 2,000 men compared to less than 75 for the Americans. In the days and weeks to follow after New Orleans, news of this battle was spread throughout the United States. Many people celebrated, and Andrew Jackson became an American hero. While the Treaty of Ghent did not declare a winner of the war, two losers can be identified. Foremost among them was the Native Americans. Throughout the war, the Indians fought alongside the British. They hoped the British would win the war. If this happened, they might win back the Ohio Territory that they had prior to the French and Indian War. But when the treaty was signed, this proved to be a huge setback for the Indians. The Federalist Party would be the second loser of this war. Prior to the war, they were the voice that preached pacifism. But in the end, most Americans came to believe that the war was right, and when it was over, the Federalists were discredited with the stance they had before the war. They never recovered, and within a decade, the Federalists fizzled away completely never to be heard from again. Andrew Jackson at the Battle of New Orleans (by Edward Percy Moran in 1910) the country would change drastically. And for the first time, the country came together and felt like true Americans. At the same time, there was a period of longstanding peace and stability in the western hemisphere. After the War of 1812, military activity ended. So, as a result, America entered a period of time called the Era of Good Feeling. This time was marked by peace, stability, and economic prosperity. Another important result of the war was a surge of nationalism and patriotism (for roughly a decade or so after the war). Many argue that the United States was formed after this war. There was now a lot of pride associated with being an American, and there was a ton of optimism for the future. Culturally and socially, 16