Comments on Griet Vankeerberghen s papers Pining for the West: Chang'an in the Life of Kings and their Relatives during Chengdi's Reign (33-7 BCE) Huang Yijun
Aim of this paper This paper discusses the transition of the relationship between Han empire and its kingdoms in the reign of Chengdi from the perspective of geographical space. The transition can be summarized as the decline of the separate kingdom s independence in politics, administration (legal and bureaucratic), military, economy, and culture. The author has carefully addressed the main aspects of this transition as well as some important details.
Main points of the paper 1.The way of kings were appointed changed after the Seven Kingdom s revolt (154 BC); kings were generally appointed at a very young age and forbidden to continue to live in Chang an, after one among them was selected as the next emperor. 2.The founders of a kingdom usually had more intimate connection with the reigning emperor than their descendants whose contact with Chengdi tended to be formal. 3.The intervals for the court visits of kings, as well as number and type of their entourages and gifts presented to them by Chengdi and tribute presented by them to the court -- all these were strictly subject to sumptuary laws; any exceptions to the rules implied the special disposition of the reigning emperor. 4.As for the stay and activities of the kings during their court visit, the record shows the kings living in di 邸 and their activities at the mausolea of some emperors and the White Tiger Hall, where they were feasted by Chengdi. 5. The court s disposition toward the kingdoms was reflected in many aspects of court culture that controlled them, and the court's favor, when the kings and their families were leniently treated by Chengdi, or when he reinstated royal lineages, reduced or reversed the statutory punishments for the kings.
The paper's focus on geographic space 1) Using both the statutes and historical sources, Professor Vankeerberghen discussed the king's residences in life and in the afterlife. 2. Professor Vankeerberghen traces the routes that kings used to enter Chang an and their temporary residencies in the capital, as well as the spheres of their activities during the court visits. 3. Professor Vankeerberghen discusses the changing image of Chang an vis-á-vis the kingdoms. A.The kings came to prefer Chang an eventually, in contrast to early Western Han, when the kings were happy enough to stay in their power bases. B.For the sake of the empire, Chang'an came to insist that the kingdom's ministers be appointed by Chang an, even as Chang'an came to dominate the kingdoms culturally. C.Reigning emperors insisted upon the separation of the living and burial spaces of the emperor from the kings; therefore the kings had to go to their kingdoms and pay court visits only at the stipulated times and in the correct way.
Highlight of this paper and possible areas for future research: The strengths of this paper relate to the notion of gift exchange, which the paper effectively revealed through its discussion of the changing cultural and political roles of the kingdoms during Chengdi s reign.
Possibility for further study 1) I suggest that Professor Vankeerberghen pay more attention to the Chinese research on the decline of the kingdoms and their spatial relationship with the commanderies, also on the changing relationship between the local kings and the officials sent to kingdoms by the courts. 2) Excavated tombs found in the territories formerly occupied by the kingdoms can also provide further data to help us understand the cultural transition of the kingdoms in late Western Han. The evidence from them supplies useful details, e.g., the categories of gifts from the court which are found in the kings tomb. 3) Several Chinese scholars have researched the transportation from Chang an to other sites, which may prove helpful when examining the routes taken during the kings court visits.
One further suggestion As Professor Vankeerberghen has observed, noteworthy changes had already occurred in the relationship between the court and its kings long before Chengdi s reign. Thus I suggest the author focus more on the distinctive characteristics of Chengdi s court culture, which revealed itself, I think, in a stricter control over royal privileges and obligations of the kingdoms, consistent with the fully mature imperial ideology. For example, the court intervened more in the affairs of the kingdoms by sending classically-trained and upright officials to the kingdoms, in order to "civilize" recalcitrant kings, so that they might uphold the hierarchies celebrated in the Five Classics.