APUSH / Ms. Wiley / Japanese Internment Camps, D Name: Background on Japanese Internment Camps Following the bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, President Franklin Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, which forced the Japanese-American population of the Western U.S. into internment camps. Military and political leaders suspected that Imperial Japan, who had rapidly conquered a large portion of Asia and the Pacific since the beginning of WWII, was preparing a full-scale attack on the West Coast of the United States. Civilian and military officials had concerns about the loyalty of the ethnic Japanese and decided it would be best for purposes of national security to intern those of Japanese descent for the duration of the war. 1. Why were citizens of Japanese decent living on the West Coast, interned during WWII? 127,000 people of Japanese ancestry, two-thirds of them American citizens, were living in California, Washington, and Oregon in 1942. These individuals, threats to national security, were given, on average, five days to sell or store their properties, businesses, assets, etc. Since potential buyers knew the Japanese only had a few days to report for evacuation, sales of properties (etc.) usually resulted in great financial loss for those of Japanese ancestry. Those that could afford to pay for storage of furniture and other belongings were disappointed after the war, when they found that much of what they had placed there was stolen or destroyed. 2. For what reason(s) did the evacuation process result in great financial loss for those of Japanese ancestry? Living conditions at the internment camps were very poor. Most were similar to military barracks, fashioned in communal style (unpartitioned toilets, dormitories, etc.), and lacked proper medical care, which resulted in a number of deaths throughout the war. Internees could no longer report to their job, attend school, worship at their usual place of worship, or choose when to eat and sleep, and military personnel guarded the camps at all times. Some of the internees proved that they were loyal by volunteering to enter the U.S. Army forces. Thousands joined the military while their families stayed on at the camps. Those living in the camps contributed to the war effort by making camouflage netting for the military. 3. Were the conditions at the camps justifiable? Why or why not? 4. If you had been an internee, do you think you would have volunteered to fight for America or contribute to the war effort? Why or why not? Executive Order No. 9066, Franklin D. Roosevelt, February 19, 1942 Whereas the successful prosecution of the war requires every possible protection against espionage and against sabotage to national-defense material, national-defense premises, and national-defense utilities Now, therefore, by virtue of the authority vested in me as President of the United States, and Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, I hereby authorize and direct the Secretary of War, and the Military Commanders whom he may from time to time designate, whenever he or any designated Commander deems such action necessary or desirable, to prescribe military areas in such places and of such extent as he or the appropriate Military Commander may determine, from which any or all persons may be excluded, and with respect to which, the right of any person to enter, remain in, or leave shall be subject to whatever restrictions the Secretary of War or the appropriate Military Commander may impose in his discretion. The Secretary of War is hereby authorized to provide for residents of any such area who are excluded therefrom, such transportation, food, shelter, and other accommodations as may be necessary, in the judgment of the Secretary of War or the said Military Commander, and until other arrangements are made, to accomplish the purpose of this order. I hereby further authorize and direct the Secretary of War and the said Military Commanders to take such other steps as he or the appropriate Military Commander may deem advisable to enforce compliance with the restrictions applicable to each Military area hereinabove authorized to be designated, including the use of Federal troops and other Federal Agencies, with authority to accept assistance of state and local agencies.
5. Does Executive Order 9066 give too much power to the military? Or, was it an appropriate war-time order? U.S. Government Explains Internment, 1942 (video, 9:29) [YouTube Japanese Relocation - U.S. Gov't Explanation 1942 (Japanese Internment Camps) click on first option, by U.S. government, link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5_rk3rp5kqs] The United States Office of War Information (OWI) was a U.S. government agency created during World War II to consolidate government information services. It operated from June 1942 until September 1945. It coordinated the release of war news for domestic use, and, using posters and radio broadcasts, worked to promote patriotism, warn about foreign spies and recruit women into war work. The office also established an overseas branch, which launched a large scale information and propaganda campaign abroad. The OWI produced a short propaganda film titled Japanese Relocation in 1942, the purpose of which was to justify and explain Japanese American internment on the West Coast during World War II. 1. How does the U.S. government justify internment? 2. How does the U.S. government convey the internment experience? 3. Which arguments made by the government seem legitimate and which do not? (analyze potential bias in the government s point of view) Japanese Internment and the Korematsu Case (video, 14:31) [YouTube Japanese Internment during WWII click on first option, by Carey McGleish; link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6mr97qyka2s; note: video cuts off awkwardly when discussing reparations that were later made to internees; you ll hear more about this later in the document] 4. Why were Japanese uncertain about where they were going and what the future held? 5. Describe the assembly centers used to house Japanese-Americans: 6. Why did Japanese-Americans peacefully go into the camps? 7. Who was Fred Korematsu? Why was he arrested? How did his family react to his arrest? 8. What did Korematsu s attorneys argue? 9. What did the government argue? What is important to note about the larger historical context? 10. What was the result of the Korematsu case (1944)? What did the Court argue? Why? 11. What arguments did Justice Frank Murphy argue in his dissenting opinion? 12. What was the experience of going home for individuals that had been interned? 13. How many people of Japanese ancestry had been accused of sabotage during WWII? 14. What is coram nobis? How was it utilized in Korematsu s case?
Primary Sources on Internment And I never will forget, the train stopped and we got off and they put us on a big truck. It looked like one of those cattle cars. Anyway, we stood up because there were no chairs for us to sit on this pickup and crowded into this truck. They drove us to the Fresno Assembly Center. And then we got off there and they told us to get in and there was the barbed wire gate, and the police around there and uh... We had to go in through that gate and after we got in there we knew that the gate was shut. And so, we saw all these people behind the fence, looking out, hanging onto the wire, and looking out because they were anxious to know who was coming in. But I will never forget the shocking feeling that human beings were behind this fence like animals [crying]. And we were going to also lose our freedom and walk inside of that gate and find ourselves... cooped up there. And the police, with their guns and some of them had bayonets. I don t know what they were going to do with it, if they thought we were going to run away I guess. But anyway, when the gates were shut, we knew that we had lost something that was very precious; that we were no longer free. You know, we were so naive, and I guess, you know, we should have known what Americanism really meant. But we were young, and inexperienced, and uh, I hadn t trained to be a lawyer or anything like that... So we had no thought about defying the government. And of course the Japanese people respect the elderly, and those who are important, the President of the United States, we wouldn t, you know, even if he s wrong, we wouldn t say anything. (Mary Tsukamoto Interview, Copyright 2001 Smithsonian Institution) For myself, I think I was really disillusioned about democracy, and what the Constitution stood for. Because all my life, and all through school, I was in it for 12 years, that s all I was learning, and all of a sudden, it really didn t mean anything when it came to my own personal freedom, and my civil liberties. I guess when I left, and went to the mid-west, and began to meet a lot of people, who couldn t believe that I had been treated that way, and that all of us, you know, had been treated that way, that it occurred to me that the government really wasn t doing something that the entire population supported them. It was just a governmental order, which many people didn t know about. And that if they knew about it they might have objected to it. And I think gradually, I began to realize that there are lots of things that we needed to do to correct democracy, to correct, you know our own personal lives, and that I needed to do something, you know, about it if I felt strongly enough about different things. (Sue Embrey Interview, Copyright 2001 Smithsonian Institution) Today, I don t think this would ever happen to ethnic Japanese... at this point on. In the 1940s we had no power in Washington. Today, we have Senators, we have Congress people, we have mayors of cities of the United States, we have governors of ethnic Japanese. This would never happen with the ethnic Japanese community in the United States... but it might happen with another group, with no power. And therefore, I feel the ethnic Japanese community has a responsibility to keep on pushing this knowledge. It won t happen to ethnic Japanese, I m pretty sure of that, but I don t want it to happen to any other group of people. (Morgan Yamanaka Interview, Copyright 2001 Smithsonian Institution) 15. Record three important insights that can be gained from the excerpts above:
Summary of Constitutional Rights Violated Freedom of religion, speech, press, and right to assemble I. Restrictions on Powers of Congress Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. Japanese Americans religious freedoms were violated with respect to the practice of Eastern religious beliefs. The practice of the Shinto religion was prohibited in the camps. Christianity was officially encouraged by camp administrators. At the same time, Buddhism was severely restricted by the ban on written materials in Japanese and the placement of Buddhist clergy in separate Department of Justice internment camps. Japanese Americans were denied the guarantee of freedom of speech and press with the prohibition of using the Japanese language in public meetings and the censorship of camp newspapers. The right to assemble was abridged when mass meetings were prohibited, and English was required to be the primary language used at all public gatherings. The guarantee of freedom to petition for redress was violated when a few Japanese Americans exercised their citizen rights and demanded redress of grievances from the government. The War Relocation Authority administration labeled them as troublemakers and sent them to isolation camps. Freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures IV. Seizures, Searches, and Warrants The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and persons or things to be seized. The FBI searched homes of Japanese Americans often without search warrants, seeking any items identified as being Japanese. Items that appeared as contraband such as short-wave radios were confiscated. Right to an indictment or to be informed of the charges; right to life, liberty and property; right to be confronted with accusatory witnesses; right to call favorable witnesses; right to legal counsel V. Criminal Proceedings and Condemnation of Property No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. The forced removal and subsequent detention of Japanese Americans resulted in the denial of witnesses in their favor, and the denial of assistance of counsel for their defense. Japanese Americans who were picked up in the FBI sweep were denied a speedy trial or access to any legal representative. They could not call upon witnesses nor confront accusatory witnesses. Japanese Americans were not told of their crime or the charges against them. Right to a speedy and public trial S VI. Mode of Trial in Criminal Proceedings In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district, wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.
These rights could not be taken away except upon evidence of a criminal act and conviction in a court of law. Yet, Japanese Americans were deprived of their liberty and property by being forcibly removed from their homes and locked up in detention camps without the required statement of charges and trial by jury. How could this happen? The government adopted semantics to justify the act of imprisonment. Even though Japanese Americans were held against their will in barbed wire compounds under armed guard, the government euphemistically called the event an evacuation or relocation. Right to reasonable bail; freedom from cruel and unusual punishment VIII. Bails, Fines, Punishments Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. The treatment of the Japanese Americans in the assembly centers and detention camps were a form of cruel and unusual punishment on the basis that conditions were grossly inadequate. Hospitals were understaffed, medical care poor and food was dietetically deficient. Right to vote XV. Elective Franchise The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. The right to vote in public elections was essentially denied to Japanese Americans since they were prohibited from returning home to vote at their place of residence. No provisions were made to enable them to vote absentee. Although elections were held in the camps, the internee self-government had no power to regulate their own welfare or direct their own destiny. Right against involuntary servitude; right to equal protection under the laws CONSTITUTIONAL ARTICLES XIV. Citizenship Representation, and Payment of Public Debt All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. The equal protection of Japanese American was violated because the government acted solely on the basis of race and national ancestry when identifying persons to be excluded from designated military areas along the West Coast states. In addition, the government failed to compensate or provided grossly inadequate compensation to the internees for losses of property rights when they were forced to leave within 48 hours to a couple of weeks. Japanese Americans were deprived of their liberty and property by the State when forced from their jobs, homes, and communities into barbed wire, guarded centers and camps. 16. Of all the constitutional violations above, which three stand out as the most severe? Explain.
An Apologetic Nation In 1980, President Jimmy Carter signed legislation to create the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, which would conduct an official governmental study of Executive Order 9066 and its impact on Japanese Americans. Two years later, the Commission issued its findings, concluding that the incarceration of Japanese Americans had not been justified by military necessity, as had been espoused by military officials at the time. The report determined that the decision to incarcerate was based on race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership. The Commission recommended legislative remedies consisting of a government apology and redress payments to the survivors. In 1988, Congress and President Ronald Reagan passed the Civil Liberties Act based on the Commission s recommendations. One year later, George H. W. Bush signed an appropriation bill authorizing payments to be paid out between 1990 and 1998. In 1990, surviving internees began to receive individual letters of apology and redress payments. By the time the Act was passed the IRS had already destroyed most of the tax records of the internees, thus, it was extremely difficult for claimants to establish that their claims were valid. Nonetheless, each surviving internee received $20,000. President George H.W. Bush issued a formal apology from the U.S. government on December 7, 1991, on the very day of the 50th-Anniversary of the Pearl Harbor attack: "In remembering, it is important to come to grips with the past. No nation can fully understand itself or find its place in the world if it does not look with clear eyes at all the glories and disgraces of its past. We in the United States acknowledge such an injustice in our history. The internment of Americans of Japanese ancestry was a great injustice, and it will never be repeated." 17. Did the U.S. government make the right decisions regarding apologies and reparations? Why or why not?