American Foreign Policy and the Challenges of World Leadership POWER, PRINCIPLE, AND THE CONSTITUTION Loch K. Johnson University of Georgia New York Oxford Oxford University Press
CONTENTS Preface ix About the Author xv PART 1: UNDERSTANDING AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY Chapter 1: The Objectives and Instruments of American Foreign Policy* 3 AMERICA UNDER ATTACK 3 THE IMPORTANCE OF AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY 5 THE OBJECTIVES OF AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY 6 Maintaining Peace and Security 7 Securing Economic Prosperity 9 Improving the Quality of Life 10 Upholding Human Rights 12 Reviewing American Foreign Policy Objectives 15 THE INSTRUMENTS OF AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY 17 National Security Intelligence 18 Diplomacy 21 Military Force 23 Covert Action 24 Economic Statecraft 26 Moral and Cultural Suasion 27 KEY PHILOSOPHIES OF FOREIGN POLICY 29 Chapter 2: An Analytic Construct for the Study of American Foreign Policy 37 HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI 37 THREE PERSPECTIVES ON FOREIGN POLICY DECISIONS 39 THE INTERNATIONAL SETTING 42 Balance of Power 43 Geopolitics 45 Complex Interdependence 49 THE DOMESTIC SETTING 52 The Mirror of the Past 52 Exceptionalism 53 The Constitution 54 Institutional Fragmentation 55 Pluralist Politics 57 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKER 57 Role-Playing 58 Past Experience 58 Distorted Perceptions 60 Chapter 3: A Constitutional Framework for American Foreign Policy 67 CONFLICT OVER PRESIDENTIAL WAR POWERS 67 SHARED POWERS 69 FOREIGN-POLICY AND THE CONSTITUTION 72 THE WAR POWER 73 Defensive and Offensive Warfare 74 Inherent Presidential Authority 77 War by Blank Check 78 THE TREATY POWER 82 The Destroyers Deal 83 Creeping Commitments 85 THE SEEDS OF ACQUIESCENCE 87 MONEY AND OTHER CONSTITUTIONAL DISPUTES 90 The Purse Strings 91 Diplomatic Recognition, Confirmation, Accountability 92 CONFLICT AND COMITY 94
PART 2: THE INFLUENCES OF HISTORY Chapter 4: The Formative Years of American Foreign Policy 99 THE SINKING OF THE MAINE 99 NATION BUILDING, 1776-1898 101 Apart from the World 103 Ambivalence toward Europe 105 Expansionist Stirrings 107 Monroe Delivers a Lecture 110 Westward Ho! 112 Civil War 114 A Nation Grown Bolder 115 EMERGENCE AS A GREAT POWER, 1898-1920 117 The Spanish-American War 117 Spreading Democracy and Opening Markets 117 Wilsonian Idealism 121 AMERICA AS A RELUCTANT LEADER, 1920-1945 124 The Fascist Threat 125 Embracing Internationalism Gingerly 128 Chapter 5: The Cold War and the Doctrine of Containment 133 HIGH NOON IN CUBA, 1962 133 THE NUCLEAR ERA 135 Containment and the Cold War 136 A New Militancy 139 PART 3: INSTITUTIC Chapter 7: Institutional Conflict and Cooperation 201 THE PRESIDENT, THE CONGRESS, AND DIEN BIEN PHU 201 FRAGMENTS OF POWER 203 Efficiency versus Freedom 203 Presidents versus Lawmakers 203 A Foreign Policy Compact 206 PERIL POINTS 142 Korean War 144 Crises in Cuba 147 Vietnam 151 DETENTE 158 A Thawing in the Cold War 159 Fresh Conflicts 159 The Cold War Revived 162 Chapter 6: American Foreign Policy in a Fractured World 167 DEATH IN SOMALIA 167 A FRACTURED WORLD 169 NEW WORLD DISORDER 170 Disintegration of the Soviet Union 170 Bloodbath in the Balkans 175 Fusion in Western Europe 179 Desert Storm 180 Chaos in Somalia 183 WOLVES IN THE WOODS 184 Weapons Proliferation 184 Counternarcotics 185 Immigration 185 The Micro-States 186 Other Transnational Challenges 187 THE RISE OF GLOBAL TERRORISM 188 The 9/11 Attacks 189 "Preemptive" War in Iraq 192 Drone Warfare 195 ; AND INDIVIDUALS THE PRESIDENCY AND LIMITS TO PRESIDENTIAL POWER 207 Information and Time 207 Permissibility 208 Resources 209 Previous Commitments 209 Formal Powers 210
THE FOREIGN POLICY BUREAUCRACY 211 National Security Council 211 The Departments of State and Defense 216 Turf Battles 223 THE CONGRESS 224 Minnows and Whales 224 Legislative Watchdogs 225 THE COURTS 229 Tilt Toward the President 230 Curbing Presidential Excess 231 FOREIGN POLICY POWER: A STUDY IN CUBISM 232 Chapter 8: Foreign Policy and the American People 237 A VICTORY FOR CONGRESSIONAL ACCOUNTABILITY 237 PUBLIC OPINION AND AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY 239 Democracy versus Demoscopy 239 The President and Public Opinion 240 Opinion Leadership 242 Congress and Public Opinion 243 Vox Populi 246 INTEREST GROUPS AND AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY 247 Foreign Lobbies 248 A Kaleidoscope of Domestic Pressures 251 A Diversity of International Pressures 254 THE INDIVIDUAL AND AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY 254 The Lasswellian Hypothesis 255 Psychological Pressures on Foreign Policy Leaders 257 Operational Codes 258 The Worth of the Individual 261 PART 4: THE INSTRUMENTS OF FOREIGN POLICY Chapter 9: Intelligence Collection and Analysis 265 INTELLIGENCE TO THE RESCUE 265 INTELLIGENCE AND THE FOUNDATIONS OF FOREIGN POLICY 267 THE ORIGINS OF AMERICA'S MODERN SPY AGENCIES 268 The Coordination of Intelligence 269 The Structure of Intelligence 271 The Intelligence Missions 278 COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 279 Planning and Direction 279 Collection 284 Processing 287 Analysis 287 Dissemination 290 SECRECY AND FOREIGN POLICY 292 Secrets Good and Bad 293 Executive Privilege 294 Prior Restraint 298 Chapter 10: Diplomacy 303 THE ATTACK OF THE BRICKERITES 303 TALKING INSTEAD OF FIGHTING 305 THE WIKILEAKS PAPERS: THE PRIVATE FACE OF DIPLOMACY 308 THE BREADTH OF DIPLOMACY 311 Counterterrorism and the Islamic World 312 Russia and China 314 Europe 317 Global Hot Spots 318
THE MAKING OF INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS 319 The Hidden Side of Diplomacy 321 Military Agreements 323 THE DANGERS OF DIPLOMACY BY EXECUTIVE FIAT 325 Constitutional Diplomacy 326 Stirrings on the Fulbright ' Committee 327 The Case-Zablocki Act 327 The Treaty Powers Resolution 329 Two Houses Do Not Make a Home 331 DIPLOMACY'S FAR REACH 332 Chapter 11: Military Force 335 THE CAMBODIAN "INCURSION" 335 THE LAST FULL MEASURE 337 USES OF THE WAR POWER 338 WEAPONS OF WAR IN THE NUCLEAR AGE 340 Backpacks and City Busters 341 The Effects of Nuclear Weapons 341 Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Weapons 343 Star Wars 345 Deterrence and the Triad 346 Command and Control 349 The Arsenals 350 How Much Is Enough? 352 Arms Control 353 DECIDING TO USE THE WAR POWER 354 The War Powers Resolution 355 Wrestling over the Resolution 358 A House of Cards 362 The Use of Nuclear Weapons 363 Chapter 12: Covert Action 367 THE SPY AND THE SLEEPY WATCHDOG 367 COVERT ACTION: AMERICA'S SECRET FOREIGN POLICY 369 Legal Underpinnings 369 Policy Rationale 370 THE METHODS OF COVERT ACTION 371 Propaganda 372 Political Manipulation 373 Economic Disruption 374 Paramilitary Operations 375 LIMITS FOR COVERT ACTION 382 A LADDER OF ESCALATION FOR COVERT ACTION 384 Threshold One: Routine Options 384 Threshold Two: Modest Intrusions 384 Threshold Three: High-Risk Options 384 Threshold Four: Extreme Options 386 AN EVALUATION OF COVERT ACTION 388 COVERT ACTION DECISION MAKING 389 Executive Branch Decision Procedures 391 Reporting to Congress 393 Legislative Prerogatives 393 Accountability versus Micromanagement 395 INTELLIGENCE AND PROPRIETY 398 Chapter 13: Economic Statecraft 403 A KING BUYS A SPECIAL AIRPLANE 403 TRADE AS AN INSTRUMENT OF AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY 405 A Portrait of US Trading Practices 406 North and South of the Border 407 Mosel Wine and BMWs 410 China Rising 411 PROTECTIONISM VERSUS FREE TRADE 412 GATT 413 NAFTA 413
THE UNITED STATES: NO LONGER THE SOLITARY ECONOMIC BEHEMOTH 414 ECONOMIC FRAGMENTATION AT HOME AND ABROAD 415 The Multinationals 418 Fragmentation of Economic Power at Home 419 THE USE OF TRADE SANCTIONS 423 Economic Carrots and Sticks 424 The Limits of Economic Sanctions and Inducements 424 FOREIGN AID 426 A Portrait of US Foreign Aid 427 A Pound of Containment and a Dash of Altruism 429 Souring on Aid 431 Foreign Aid Successes 434 Chapter 14: Cultural And Moral Suasion 439 AMERICA VEERS OFF COURSE 439 CULTURAL VALUES AND ETHICS IN FOREIGN POLICY 441 ETHICAL DILEMMAS OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 443 The Munich Pact 444 Hiroshima and Nagasaki 444 Nuclear Deterrence 446 ESPIONAGE 450 Domestic Intelligence Restraints 451 Intelligence Restraints Abroad 452 HUMAN RIGHTS 461 Freedom and Human Dignity 461 Quality of Life 462 CHARTING A MORAL COURSE 463 Three-Dimensional Ethics 464 Muscle and Morality 465 PART 5: FOREIGN POLICY CHALLENGES Chapter 15: New Directions for American Foreign Policy 469 CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT AND TRUTH TELLING 469 A FRESH AGENDA FOR THE UNITED STATES ABROAD 471 Improved Citizen Awareness of Global Affairs 473 Overcoming Institutional Fragmentation 475 Toward Greater International Empathy 479 An End to Compulsive Interventionism 484 EMBRACING A MORE DISCRIMINATING FOREIGN POLICY 490 MAXIMS FOR AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY 496 Notes 498 Glossary 536 Credits 547 Index 548