Italian Unification - 1815-1850 Il Risorgimento - 1815-1850 Factors that limited the progress towards unification Regionalism - The people of the various kingdoms and principalities of Italy did not feel unified or any sense of solidarity; there was virtually no nationalism in the early 19th Century. This division came about due to linguistic differences across the peninsula and different cultures. Austrian Intervention and Metternich - See the uprisings of 1821, 1830, and 1848. Poverty and Illiteracy - The spread of nationalist ideas through literature and letters were stunted by the literacy barrier; the vast majority of the people that lived in the Italian lands could not read or write. This meant that the influence of intellectuals like Mazzini was greatly limited and, in due course, the political progress of the unification was arrested. In addition to this, poverty meant that peasants had other concerns than nationalism and politics. Logistical Difficulties - Italy is a huge peninsula and the fact that there were few roads prevented travel across the lands. Therefore, key nationalist thinkers could not travel Italy to spread their ideals. Education - Most education was provided by the Roman Catholic Church, which greatly controlled what was taught in schools. Modern history was generally banned, so people had no knowledge of the existence of an Italian people. This, coupled with the censorship and control of education in Lombardy and Venetia by Austria, did not improve literacy levels or spread knowledge of Italy's rich past. Finally, education was - apart from in Lombardy and Venetia - exclusive almost entirely to the upper-middle classes and the upper classes. Literacy remained poor and stayed that way for a considerable length of time. 1820-1 - The Revolutions across Italy Revolutions in the Two Sicilies 1821 1820 - Bad harvests across Italy and parts of Europe * Revolutions in Spain in the same year spread to the army * Ferdinand I was a Spanish Bourbon, so used Spanish troops to keep order * Revolutions spread to Naples 1820 - Ferdinand I writes up a new constitution to save himself * UMS - Universal Manhood Suffrage - introduced (partial democracy)
October 1820 - New democratically-elected Parliament meets for the first time January 1821 - Ferdinand I travels to Laibach to tell the Austrian Emperor about 'how great their democracy is' * He returns to Naples with the Austrian army * The constitution is abolished * The rebel ringleaders are executed The revolution experienced intial successes, but eventually failed due to Austrian intervention Revolutions in the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia 1821 January 1821 - Revolts led by nationalist students flare up across Victor Emmanuel I's Kingdom * Initially broken up by the Piedmontese police * The army then defects and the liberals of Piedmont join * Victor Emmanuel I announces a new constitution based on UMS * The revolutionaries declare total Italian unification * Mazzini, one of the leading revolutionaries, declares war on Austria January 1821 - Victor Emmanuel I abdicates and gives power to his brother, Charles Felix * The new king requests Austrian aid; Metternich agrees * The First Battle of Novara (1821) takes place and the liberal revolutionaries lose to the loyalist Sardinian and Austrian troops * Rebellion defeated and 2 ringleaders executed Initial success, but failed due to Austrian intervention 1830 - Revolutions in Italy and France 1830 - Revolutions in France overthrow King Charles X, who was replaced by Louis Philippe I, a progressive liberal ruler (reigned between 1830-1848) Revolutionary fervour spreads south-east to Italy, once again Revolutions in the Central Duchies 1830 1830 - Second French Revolution spread to the Central Duchies * New constitutions written * Duke Francis IV of Modena escapes to Austria and asks for an army to crush the uprisings February 1830 - Francis IV returns with an army of Austrian soldiers and supresses the rebellions Once again, initial successes were met by crushing failure following Austrian intervention
Why had all the revolutions failed so far? Local, small-scale uprisings Unorganised Largely middle-classed The revolutionaries were too naive; they expected to completely reform their kingdom within a few weeks and to have little or no resistance No foreign intervention that supported the revolutions The intervention of the Austrian Empire Revolutions in the Papal States 1830 1830 - Revolutionaries overthrow the Pope * New Parliament elected * The revolutionaries appealed to France for support against the remaining loyalists * Louis Philippe I refuses to support the uprising on religious grounds 1830 - The deposed Pope appealed for Austrian support * Metternich agrees and sends an army to reinstall the Pope * The Austrian army crushes the revolution Although it was a failure, the strategy employed by the revolutionaries changed; they had realised that they needed help from one of the 'great powers' of Europe in order to make true progress Development and Progress towards unification between 1831 and 1846 Culture - More romantic novels written that included nationalistic themes (e.g. 'I Promessi' or 'The Betrothed' by Alessandro Manzoni). These stories promoted a nationalist feeling among their readers. Many forms of art used the motif of an evil oppressor, which represented Austria. To avoid censorship, however, the oppressor was replaced by other characters. Giuseppe Verdi's early operas were anti-austrian. Giacomo Leopardi depicted liberty in his artwork. Politics - The Riformisti movement began in the '30s, which believed that Italy could flourish without Austrian occupation and influence. Industrialisation and more unified economic relations across Italy were being encouraged by many thinkers. The Albertist movement grew; a political movement that promoted the reforms made by Charles Albert, king of Piedmont. Cesare Balbo ('Delle Speranze d'italia') and Massimo D'Azeglio promoted the idea that Charles Albert should become king of a unified Italy. Historian Derek Beales believes Charles Albert was not truly supportive of the unification but was merely an opportunist. Alternatively, Abbé Gioberti (in 'Il Primato', 1843) wanted the Pope
to rule Italy (Neo-Guelphism). This showed both political development, but also division. Economic and Financial - In the early 19th Century Italy had an agriculturallybased economy in which the peasantry and economy were very badly affected by agricultural problems. There was a series of bad harvests between 1820 and 1840 that led to revolts, arson, and protests; there were several notably large riots over foodstuffs in the '20s. However, as time progressed the lands became more and more industrialised. 1846-1847 - The Prelude to Revolution 1846 - Pope Gregory XVI dies 1846 - Pope Pius IX pontificated * Pius IX was surprisingly liberal and was also a well-known supporter of reforms * Klemens von Metternich (1846) - "We expected everything, except a liberal pope" 1846-7 - 9,000 political prisoners released in the Papal States, the use of gas now allowed, railways permitted, freedom of the press in the Papacy, increasing support for Pius IX 'Pio Nomo' ('Our Pope') and now the neo-guelphist movement became a powerful political force across Italy (promoted by famous individuals like Gioberti). Despite more support for the Church as a liberal and progressive force, Ferdinand II of Naples described Gioberti as a "wretched little priest" and banned cheering as he saw it as a way to promote revolutionary action. 1847 - Bad harvests 1848 - The Year of Revolution 1848 - Huge riots flare up in Vienna, Prague, and Budapest (Austrian troops sent from other parts of the Empire to quash the revolts), as well as in parts of Germany and France * The revolution in France succeeds and Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte is installed as president of the new republic 1848 - Russia aids Austria and helps to crush these revolutions January 1848 - Taxation of tobacco in Milan is increased * The population of Milan refused to smoke in a city-wide protest * General Joseph Radetzky von Radetz (known as Radetzky) responds by ordering occupying soldiers to blow cigar smoke into the faces of the Italians they met * Large riots ignited across the city that led to a strategic retreat from the city by the Austrian garrison (first time Italian revolutionaries had succeeded in fighting-off Austrian soldiers). They fled to the huge Quadrilateral Forts constructed by Austria 1848 - The riots spread to Naples
* Ferdinand II agrees to write up a new constitution 1848 - Riots in Venice * Austrian troops flee to the Quadrilateral 1848 - Charles Albert grants a new constitution and declares war on the Austrian Empire; First Italian War of Independence begins July 25th 1848 - Austrian troops return to Lombardy * Austrian victory at the Battle of Custoza March 23rd 1849 - Austria invades Piedmont-Sardinia after settling her own troubles within her main cities * Austrian victory at the Second Battle of Novara March 1849 - Charles Albert abdicates in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel II and pays 75 million Lire to Austria August 1849 - Venice falls to the Austrian attackers 1848 - Revolution in Rome Novemeber 1848 - Pope Pius IX flees to Naples after protests erupt over sudden high democratic expectations Giuseppe Mazzini arrives and declares a new Roman Republic, giving free land and houses to the people of the city Giuseppe Garibaldi is invited to defend Rome from any invaders Post-November 1848 - France invades Rome to restore the Pope (Louis- Napoléon Bonaparte is by now already Emperor Napoléon III) June 1849 - After a 3 week-long battle for the city, France defeats the defenders and reinstalls the Pope. Garibaldi flees across the Apenine Mountains (his wife died while fleeing beside him, making him really really ****** off) G. M. Trevelyan - "1848 was the turning point at which modern history failed to turn". Attempts at Il Risorgimento had all but failed so far due to primarily bad organisation, naivity, and foreign intervention. In spite of half a century of failures, 1848 marked the beginning of a new era in the Unification of Italy...