Language revitalization in two sister languages: The effects of language policy and planning in Irish and Scottish Gaelic July 23, 2015 Joseph W. Windsor University of Calgary jwwindso@ucalgary.ca
POPULATION The Data 6000000 5000000 4000000 3000000 2000000 1000000 0 CENSUS YEAR Scottish population Scottish speakers (mono-lingual) Scottish speakers (bi-lingual) Irish population Irish speakers
The Question
The Question Do language policies, legislation and reversing language shift (RLS) efforts actually work, and can we quantify their success if so?
140000 The Relevance 120000 100000 80000 Klingon speakers compared to other minority languages 60000 Minority Language Klingon 40000 20000 0
The Relevance While the success of RLS efforts is not news to those working in the field Governments and funding agencies continue to view RLS work as a master plan to do nothing (Fishman 1997 qtd. in Ó héallaithe 2002) in the absence of quantifiable results
Methodology Scotland Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act (2005)» Began collecting language data as British colonies (1861)» Economically and geographically similar» Ideas of language and independence linked» Gaelic stigmatized in many circles» Mass migrations Ireland Saorstát Éireann (1922)
Methodology Compile census language data from Ireland (CSO Ireland) and Scotland (ONS UK)
Methodology Compile census language data from Ireland (CSO Ireland) and Scotland (ONS UK) Correlate results with sociolinguistic and economic historical events
Methodology Compile census language data from Ireland (CSO Ireland) and Scotland (ONS UK) Correlate results with sociolinguistic and economic historical events Factor out external influences as best as possible
Methodology Compile census language data from Ireland (CSO Ireland) and Scotland (ONS UK) Correlate results with sociolinguistic and economic historical events Ask if the remaining changes (positive or negative) can be attributed to policy enactment or RLS efforts Factor out external influences as best as possible
Sociolinguistic correlations
Sociolinguistic correlations
Preliminary Observations 176% of 1861 comparator 25% of 1881 comparator
Considering Population
Number of Speakers Considering Economics 4000000 1840* 1656790 1774437 1077087 2006 1861 666601 588725 297823 231594 1800* 1881 1936 1946 2011 2001 2011 58652 66780 Great Famine (RoI) Highland Clearances (Scotland) Isolationism (RoI) 2008 recession (ROI) 2008 recession (Scotland)
Irish-Speaking Population Considering Policy 1570894 1656790 1656790 1774437 1018413 789429 553717 543511 Saorstát Eireann 1922 Higher Education Grant 1973 Acht na dteanga Oifigiúla EU Official language status 2003 2007 Before 553717 789429 1570894 1656790 After 543511 1018413 1656790 1774437
Gaelic-Speaking Population Artificial growth due to census question changes 231594 254415 230806 Considering Policy 202398 158779 136135 1970s Fight for Gaelic-medium education begins at local levels 2005 enactment of the Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 95447 80978 88892 82620 65978 58652 66780 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 Combined total Mono-lingual Gaelic & Bilingual speakers
WRT: Policy implementation and enforcement Much has been attempted and a substantial amount of money has been spent on behalf of RLS in the Gaeltacht. To counteract the poverty which was endemic [ ] Agricultural improvement grants have been awarded, government-sponsored industries [ ] Assistance to those erecting houses in that region. As a result of such efforts, unemployment [has] decreased, but many English speakers have also been attracted there (Fishman 1997:126).
WRT: Policy implementation and enforcement Much has been attempted and a substantial amount of money has been spent on behalf of RLS in the Gaeltacht. To counteract the poverty which was endemic [ ] Agricultural improvement grants have been awarded, government-sponsored industries [ ] Assistance to those erecting houses in that region. As a result of such efforts, unemployment [has] decreased, but many English speakers have also been attracted there (Fishman 1997:126). It was announced a few months after the [1973] election, that a pass in Irish would no longer be compulsory in state examinations [ ] it was also announced that an honours grade in Irish was to be henceforth worth two honours for the Higher Education Grant. The subsidy paid to Gaeltacht households by the government for keeping students attending Irish colleges was to be doubled. The Irish-language lobby was effectively bought off (Ó héallaithe 2002:169)
WRT: Policy implementation and enforcement Much has been attempted and a substantial amount of money has been spent on behalf of RLS in the Gaeltacht. To counteract the poverty which was endemic [ ] Agricultural improvement grants have been awarded, government-sponsored industries [ ] Assistance to those erecting houses in that region. As a result of such efforts, unemployment [has] decreased, but many English speakers have also been attracted there (Fishman 1997:126). It was announced a few months after the [1973] election, that a pass in Irish would no longer be compulsory in state examinations [ ] it was also announced that an honours grade in Irish was to be henceforth worth two honours for the Higher Education Grant. The subsidy paid to Gaeltacht households by the government for keeping students attending Irish colleges was to be doubled. The Irish-language lobby was effectively bought off (Ó héallaithe 2002:169) What does disturb me is the now quite apparent delaying tactics whereby recommendations are neither rejected nor implemented but simply surrounded by administrative silence and inaction [ ] after four years, I have come to the conclusion that I have been used not as a consultant but as an unwitting participant in a master plan to do nothing [ ] I have lately concluded that this is exactly what the Irish government wants (Fishman qtd in Ó héallaithe 2002:169)
Discussion» With adequate RLS policy, even during the economic downturn of 2008, (cp. 1930s-40s), Irish language speakers continue to be on the rise.» Previous trends can be correlated with historical events, but not so for the steady rise over the last decade.» The number of Irish speakers with a comparable population to 1861 has grown to more than 176% of its post-famine comparator.» With no RLS efforts in place, Gaelic speakers quickly fell to less than 2% of the population.» Following the 2005 Gaelic Languages (Scotland) Act, the language has seen its first official rise in the percentage of speakers (up 8 128 speakers).» The arrest of the decline of speakers, and the subtle movement in a positive direction is an encouraging result, and can be directly correlated to RLS policy
Conclusion» Speaker counts are not positively correlated to:» Population» Economy Though most likely influences» Historical events» Speaker counts are positively correlated to:» Language Policy & Planning» Qualitatively, RLS Policy involves Speakers in the process influencing Speaker Attitude (Lynch 2014 and reference therein)
Conclusion» Speaker counts are not positively correlated to:» Population» Economy Though most likely influences» Historical events» Speaker counts are positively correlated to:» Language Policy & Planning regardless of implementation» Qualitatively, RLS Policy involves Speakers in the process influencing Speaker Attitude (Lynch 2014 and reference therein)
Conclusion» Speaker counts are not positively correlated to:» Population» Economy Though most likely influences» Historical events» Speaker counts are positively correlated to:» Language Policy & Planning regardless of implementation» Qualitatively, RLS Policy involves Speakers in the process influencing Speaker Attitude (Lynch 2014 and reference therein)
Questions?