B 53592 The Fascism Reader Edited by Aristotle A. Kallis Routledge Taylor 81 Francis Croup LONDON AND NEW YORK
Contents Preface Acknowledgements List of abbreviations Introduction: fascism in historiography xiii xix xxiii l PART ONE Generic fascism: the search for definitions and explanations 43 Section I: Fascism - a 'generic' concept? 45 1 Generic fascism: an 'illusion'? 49 GILBERT ALLARDYCE, 'WHAT FASCISM IS NOT: THOUGHTS ON THE DEFLATION OF A CONCEPT' 2 Fascism and the capitalist system: a Marxist view 57 MARTIN KITCHEN, FASCISM 3 Fascism as 'latecomer': an ideal type with negations 64 JUAN J. LINZ, TOTALITARIAN AND AUTHORITARIAN REGIMES 4 A 'spectral-syncretic' approach to fascism 71 ROGER E A T W E L L, ' T O W A R D S A N E W M O D E L OF G E N E R I C F A S C I S M ' 5 Fascism as a 'generic' concept 82 STANLEY G. PAYNE,'THE CONCEPT OF FASCISM'
Viii CONTENTS 6 Fascism and its evolution 'in time': five stages 89 ROBERT 0. PAXTON, 'THE FIVE STAGES OF FASCISM' Section II: What produces fascism? 101 7 An interwar Marxist analysis of fascism: Togliatti and Italian Communism 105 P A L M I R O T O G L I A T T I, ' O N T H E Q U E S T I O N O F F A S C I S M ' 8 Fascism as 'extremism of the middle class' 112 SEYMOUR MARTIN LIPSET, POLITICAL BASES OF POLITICS MAN: THE SOCIAL 9 The collapse of the 'bourgeois equilibrium' of the 1920s and the rise of fascism 120 CHARLES S. MAIER, RECASTING BOURGEOIS EUROPE: STABILIZATION IN FRANCE, GERMANY AND ITALY AFTER WORLD WAR I 10 Fascism as the product of 'crisis' 129 G E O F F E L E Y, ' W H A T P R O D U C E S F A S C I S M : P R E - I N D U S T R I A L T R A D I T I O N S OR A C R I S I S OF T H E C A P I T A L I S T S T A T E? ' 11 Pre-conditions for fascism's success 137 ROGER GRIFFIN, THE NATURE OF FASCISM PART TWO Fascist movements: ideology and variations 143 Section III: Fascist ideology - the quest for the 'fascist minimum' 145 12 The 'era of fascism' and the uniqueness of fascist ideology 149 ERNST NOLTE, THREE FACES OF FASCISM 13 Five main tenets of fascist ideology 156 NOEL O'SULLIVAN, FASCISM 14 Fascist ideology: a dissident revision of Marxism? 165 ZEEV STERNHELL, THE BIRTH OF FASCIST IDEOLOGY: FROM CULTURAL REBELLION TO POLITICAL REVOLUTION 15 Fascism: 'rebirth' and 'ultra-nationalism' 174 ROGER GRIFFIN, THE NATURE OF FASCISM 16 The ideal type of fascism: a 'retrodictive theory' 182 STANLEY PAYNE, A HISTORY OF FASCISM, 1914-1945
CONTENTS ix Section IV: Varieties of fascist movements 191 17 Romania: the 'Iron Guard' 195 Z. BARBU, 'RUMANIA' 18 Hungary: Horthy, Gombos and the 'Arrow Cross' 201 ISTVAN DEAK, 'H U NGARY' 19 Austria: 'Heimwehr', 'NSDAP' and the 'Christian Social' State 212 JILL LEWIS, 'CONSERVATIVES AND FASCISTS IN AUSTRIA, 1918-34' 20 Spain: the 'Falange' 223 SHEELAGH M. ELLWOOD, 'FALANGE ESPANOLA, 1933-9: FROM FASCISM TO FRANCOISM' 21 France: the 'second wave' of fascism in the 1930s 232 ROBERT SOUCY, FRENCH FASCISM: THE SECOND WAVE, 1933-1939 22 Britain: the 'British Union of Fascists' 241 RICHARD THURLOW, FASCISM IN BRITAIN: A HISTORY, 1918-1985 PART THREE The 'regime-model' of fascism 249 Section V: Techniques of fascist rule - the exercise of power by the 'regime-model' of fascism 251 23 'Totalitarian dictatorship' and fascism 255 C A R L J. F R I E D R I C H A N D Z B I G N I E W K. B R Z E Z I N S K I, TOTALITARIAN DICTATORSHIP AND AUTOCRACY 24 'Behemoth': Nazism as 'stateless' system 263 FRANZ NEUMANN, BEHEMOTH: THE STRUCTURE AND PRACTICE OF NATIONAL SOCIALISM 25 Nazi state and neo-feudalism 271 ROBERT K O E H L, ' F E U D A L ASPECTS OF NATIONAL SOCIALISM' 26 Devices of the 'fascist consensus': party and mass organisations in fascist Italy 278 DOUG THOMPSON, STATE CONTROL IN FASCIST CULTURE AND CONFORMITY, 1925-43 ITALY: 27 Coercion and terror: the Gestapo in the Nazi system 286 K L A U S - M I C H A E L M A L L M A N N A N D G E R H A R D P A U L, ' O M N I S C I E N T, O M N I P O T E N T, O M N I P R E S E N T? G E S T A P O, S O C I E T Y A N D R E S I S T A N C E '
X CONTENTS 28 Charismatic leadership: the 'cult' of Hitler 294 IAN KERSHAW, THE HITLER-MYTH: IMAGE AND REALITY IN THE THIRD REICH 29 Fascist regime and territorial expansion: Italy and Germany 301 M A C G R E G O R K N O X, ' C O N Q U E S T, D O M E S T I C A N D F O R E I G N, IN F A S C I S T I T A L Y A N D N A Z I G E R M A N Y ' 30 Salazar's Estado Novo: the nature of a 'para-fascist' regime 313 ANTONIO COSTA PINTO, SALAZAR'S DICT ATORS HI P AN D EUROPEAN FASCISM: PROBLEMS OF INTERPRETATION Section VI: Fascism and anti-semitism 319 31 German anti-semitic tradition, National Socialist regime and 'ordinary Germans' 323 DANIEL JONAH GOLDHAGEN, HITLER'S WILLING EXECUTIONERS: ORDINARY GERMANS AND THE HOLOCAUST 32 The 'uniqueness' of Nazi racialism 332 M I C H A E L B U R L E I G H AND W O L F G A N G W I P P E R M A N N, THE RACIAL STATE: GERMANY 1933-1945 33 Partners in genocide? Anti-Semitism and the Axis alliance 341 JONATHAN STEINBERG, ALL OR NOTHING: THE AXIS AND THE HOLOCAUST 1941-1943 34 Racism, fascism and nationalism 349 MARK NEOCLEOUS, FASCISM 35 Italian Fascism and racism 359 E. M. ROBERTSON, 'RACE AS A FACTOR IN MUSSOLINI'S POLICY IN AFRICA AND EUROPE' 36 Anti-Semitism in Vichy France 367 SUSAN ZUCCOTTI, THE HOLOCAUST, THE FRENCH AND THE JEWS PART FOUR Societal attitudes to fascism: support, conformity, opposition and resistance 375 Section VII: Society and attitudes to fascism - support, conformity and resistance 377 37 Italian Fascism as a 'generational' phenomenon 381 B R U N O W A N R O O I J, ' T H E R I S E A N D F A L L OF I T A L I A N F A S C I S M A S A G E N E R A T I O N A L R E V O L T '
CONTENTS Xi 38 Fascism and working class: workers under Italian Fascism 391 T O B I A S A B S E, ' I T A L I A N W O R K E R S A N D I T A L I A N F A S C I S M ' 39 Fascism and the crisis of modernity: NSDAP members and supporters 399 DETLEV J. K. PEUKERT, INSIDE NAZI GERMANY: CONFORMITY, OPPOSITION AND RACISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE 40 Fascism and gender: women under national socialism 407 JILL STEPHENSON, THE NAZI ORGANISATION OF WOMEN 41 Vichy France: resistance and collaboration in the Nazi New Order 414 ROBERT 0. PAXTON, VICHY FRANCE: OLD GUARD AND NEW ORDER 1940-1944 42 Spain in the 1930s: a divided society and the coming of the civil war 422 RAYMOND CARR, THE SPANISH TRAGEDY: THE CIVIL WAR IN PERSPECTIVE Section VIII: Fascism and social elites - complicity and antagonism 431 43 Fascists and conservatives: between alliance and rivalry 435 M A R T I N B L I N K H O R N, ' A L L I E S, R I V A L S, OR A N T A G O N I S T S? F A S C I S T S A N D C O N S E R V A T I V E S IN M O D E R N E U R O P E ' 44 Conservative elites and Hitler: from support to opposition 442 K L A U S - J U R G E N M U L L E R, ' T H E S T R U C T U R E A N D N A T U R E OF T H E N A T I O N A L C O N S E R V A T I V E O P P O S I T I O N IN G E R M A N Y UP TO 1 9 4 0 ' 45 Industrial elites and the rise of National Socialism 453 H E N R Y A. T U R N E R J R, ' B I G B U S I N E S S A N D T H E R I S E O F H I T L E R ' 46 The 'March on Rome': fascist triumph or capitulation of the liberal system? 466 ADRIAN LYTTELTON, THE SEIZURE OF POWER: FASCISM IN ITALY 1919-1929
Xii CONTENTS 47 Monarchy and the military in search of dictator: Primo de Rivera's dictatorship 475 SHLOMO BEN-AMI, FASCISM FROM ABOVE: THE DICTATORSHIP OF PRIMO DE RIVERA IN SPAIN, 1923-1930 References 482 Further reading 495 Index 504