Notes for Chinese Cultural Revolution Introduction: Can talk about yourself, why you got into history. Past experience with Retirement Course. Let s begin by looking at the broad structural causes that lead to China s long revolution and civil war (and recall that the civil war between nationalists and communists that we are taking about is a competition between two revolutions). Then I will get into the concrete history. 1. China century of humiliation. Opium wars, treaty port system, foreign concessions, discrimination, eventually Japanese imperialism (existential threat). 2. Recreation of a functional modern state in the wake of an empire s collapse. (1500 year old structure is laid to waste and nothing is immediately in its place. Key thing is that the Qing Dynasty modernized principally through military reforms which lead to powerful provincial cliques. 3. The question of social revolution. So in other words, what the new relationship will be between state and society. Particularly the peasanty, which are the overwhelming majority of Chinese people, and the ones least tied to the state. (New Slide) Begin with collapse of the Qing: Sadly, I can t get into all the intricacies of the collapse of the Qing empire and the what follows in its wake (which is sometimes called the 1911-1912 Revolution). However, what needs to be emphasized is that this is principally a collapse of a ruling elite, rather then a thorough political or social revolution. Show the
map of 1911 China and emphasize its fragmentation. Two key figures are Sun Yet-san and Yuan Shikai. About Yuan s rule: Leads from 1911-1916 as an autocrat. Does not work with KMT and is mostly focused on internal stability with the outer provinces. During this time, Sun goes into retirement. Before his death, Yuan tries to subdue the southern provinces, which leads to mutinies within his army. Not resolved before he dies. (new slide). Warlord Period (1916-1928): Features: First of all, technically the date is misleading because the warlords are not entirely subdued until the end of the civil war. Weak central government in Beijing called the Beiyang government which is the remnants of Yuan s infrastructure. Mainly concerned with diplomatic affairs and recognition. Cities are increasingly controlled by the foreign concessions or the underground crime sydachits that are profiting off of the opium trade. Because of weakness of the Republic of China and dependency on foreign powers for loans and protection, there is a kind of semi-colonization going on (infamous story about how in a park in Shanghai there was a sign that said no dogs, no Chinese. Dynamics of the warlords: Alliance politics designed to prevent other warlords from gaining too much supremacy. Funded through looting, heavy taxation, and opium trade. Warlords often did not have strong standing armies (through there were exceptions), and relied on local bandits. One politicians later remarked that in time of war, bandits were soldiers, and in times of peace, the soldiers were bandits. Progress: Now, if institutionally this period was a mess, it was also an era of vibrancy at the social level as Chinese of various ideological persuasions sought ways out of this period of darkness and humiliation.
Firstly, mass education starts to be practiced in the cities, which leads to a rise in literacy of the middle class. Secondly, resistance to the government in Beijing was strongest in the South and from 1917 onward coalesced around Sun Yet-San and the KMT. Sun first only lasted a year before being driven into self-imposed exile, but return in 1923. At this point, Sun decided to abandon republican government and declared one-party rule along the lines of Leninism and forms an alliance with the communist party (united front, which I will get to in a second). How communism arrived in China, is a crooked and complicated story. From the late 19 th century onwards translations of western thought moved through Tokyo and into Shanghai. Most of these were liberal, but the most popular radical idea of the left in that period was anarchism. What made anarchism attractive to some Asian intellectuals was its interest in the peasant question and the idea of agrarian socialism (this is the idea of mutual aid). Some there are some early indigenous sources for communism. The major factor, however, has to do with involvement of the Soviet Union and the Comintern (third international. Starts in 1919. Part of Lenin s global strategy was to align with indigenous bourgeoisie parties that were seeking to overthrow imperialism, so they start to fund and offer advice to the KMT. At the same time, they also encourage the Chinese Communist Party to form in 1919 and enter into a united front with the Nationalists. The overarching strategy was to bring the KMT to power through central organization, which would set the stage for a CCP takeover. This strategy ultimately fails, which I ll explain to you in few minutes.
Finally, anti-foreign sentiment begins to flourish. First there is the May 1919 movement which is a response to German concessions being given to the Japanese. Then in May 1925, there is the May 13 th movement, which is a response to British troops killing protesters in Shanghai and then French killing 52 demonstrators in Canton. There are waves of mass protests, boycotts, attacks on foreigners throughout 1925-1926. Evidence of popular nationalism. Now we need to look at the rise of KMT, which revolves around a generissmo named Chaing Kai-shek. From 1927-1949, he is the dominant personality in Chinese politics. Chaing won out in a power struggle over the KMT from Sun Yet-san. He then leads something called the North expedition from 1926 to 1928 in an effort to break warlord power and unify China under KMT control. It is only partially successful and we don t know what would have come out it. But, by 1928, Chiang has either subdued or coopted the warlords. Other maneuver of Chiang s is he moves to crush the CCP. If you recall, the CCP was integrated into the KMT. Part of the Russian strategy was to help Chiang build up his own reliable institution of the military that was independent of warlord power. This was to break factionalism, and one of the methods was making the army a unit of political indoctrination, loyal to the party state. However, not communist in ideology. So we see Leninist organization, without Marxist philosophy. The CCP remain unarmed but officially registered. Chiang, through the assistance of crime lords in the cities, launches a wave of white terror against CCP agents and the labour movement from 1927-1928, which kills tens of thousands and virtually wipes out the CCP. This ends the first United Front, and by appearances, the CCP is consigned to the dustbin of history. Why then, did Communism eventually win?
I think we can simplify this into two salient factors. The first is, from 1931 onward, Chiang s day to day governance is consumed with having to deal with constant and increasing Japanese aggression. This means that a) Chaing is forced to expend tremendous amounts of military resources for 14 years, especially in the Sino-Japanese war, b) the relationship between state and society is a militarized one. So despite the fact that there is a surge of nationalism in China, which only intensifies during the Sino-Japanese war, Chaing is not able to capitalize on this because of exploitive and harsh tactics from his government and generals. Fragmented ideologically. (New slide). Communists, however, are able to capitalize on these weaknesses by merging Chinese nationalism with a broader social revolution rooted in the peasantry. And I am sure many of you know who the key figure is here? (Mao) (Get picture). Mao: Had been politically active since 1918 and had absorbed the teaching of anarchism. Was a member of the CCP and prior to the white terror believed in reformism and gradual revolution, but shifted after the first failure of the united front. After the white terror CCP remain clandestine and based in Shanghai, but had to flee to Jainxi, where a Soviet government lasted from 1931-1934 (Put up picture). Mao as thinker and organizer: So I ve already mentioned that Mao had been steeped in the thought of agrarian socialism. Mao also was long interested in making Marxism work within China s class structure, and was particularly interested in the peasantry. Basic split between Mao and the leading Chinese Soviets at the time, was over the peasants. Mao believed, correctly, that communism had to respond to the needs of the peasants, rather then operating in a grand theory of economic development. The main peasant concerns were heavy rents, high
interest rates, heavy taxation, exploitation of farm labour, and the landlords cooperation with local warlords. Mao sought to build a party that integrated with the peasantry and responsive to those needs. However, the Jainxi Soviet, which at its height was 3 million people, was obliterated by Chaing s forces (recall that Chiang was more concerned with repressing the communists then fighting the Japanese in Manchuria). In 1934, Mao s republic is encircled by Chian s forces, which leads to a major retreat low referred to as the long march (Show picture). Long March (1934-1935): A massive, multi army retreat to Yanan, under the constant harassment of Nationalists and nationalist aligned warlords. (six thousand miles in a year, which means an average of 17 miles a day on foot). At the start, the military strength of the communists was listed as 86,000, by the end it was 4,000. This march has been mythologized and disputed so much that it is hard to know why it succeeded. Chiang s strategy was to drive the red forces through warlord strongholds, but they were able to break the lines through tactics of deception (launching fake raids) to divert troops the rushing through the weak points. The communist also allegedly relied on village infomants to tell them of warlords manauvres. Also had cracked Chiang s codes, so new of Nationalist army moves ahead of time. Nevertheless, the Red Army forces in China are quite weak at this time, but they get another source of luck. Manchurian general kidnaps Chiang and forces him to enter into a united front alliance against Japanese aggression. There is a split in the Chinese communist leadership with Russian aligned Bolsheviks wanting full resistance against the Japanese, whereas Mao sought social revolution of the peasantry. Mao uses the troop to launch a two front strategy. Mobilize
the peasantry into a guerrilla resistance against Japan while riding the wave of anti-japanese resistance. War of Resistance Communist victory in Civil War. Like a lot of victories, this is the story of two failures: The Japanese empire, and the Nationalist government. First of all, the Japanese conquest of China take over the most populous and well-developed places, which were also the strongholds of the government. So it is cut off from its roots and revenues. Conservative approach to the war in that he tries to raise traditional armies, does not work with radical students or peasants, and see peasants as a group to taxed and used for food. Famine began to ravage the country side and party officials, warlords, and landlords started to engage in profiteering of the diminished supply. This in turn led to nationalists troops being harassed by peasants. Mao s methods: Thorough indoctrination and disciplining of party members to prevent corruption or factionalism. 2. Integrate the army into the peasant community. Provide peasants with peace and order (kinda of a security force), while also get troops to volunteer to help peasants with daily tasks like harvest. 3. Work through local elite peasants, rather then foreigners. 4. Economic improvement based on mutual aid, organized transport, and the establishment of cooperatives (influence of anarchism). From the masses to the masses idea. So we need to understand here that we are seeing state building, war strategy, and social revolution merging. Military strategy was to mostly sit back, and rely on guerrilla war tactics. However, CCP launched a major offensive against Japan in 1940 called the Hundred Regiments Offensive which they destroyed Japanese railway lines and blockhouses. Initially it is a victory, but the
Japanese responded with a brutal vengeance called the three alls campaign, kill all, burn all, loot all, which brings terror to the peasantry and breaks up the CCP throughout North China. By 1943, World War Two is starting to go in favour of the Allies. Germany is crushed in Stalingrad, Japan is losing its positions in the Pacific, and the Japanese land army is forced to divert troops from the North into the South for something called the Ichigo Offensive. This was a massive offensive that Japan launched to cut off China from Indochina and to capture bases where the US was launching bombing campaigns from. Technically succeeds, but thins out Japanese army and are not able to hold anything or get resupplied. However, drastically weakens the Nationalist army and in the ensuing chaos, communists are able to move in and set up bases throughout the country sid By mid 1944, the CCP is preparing for the civil war against the nationalists. After Japan s surrender in 1945, The US tries to negotiate a deal between Chiang and Mao to share power in a representative assembly and merge forces into a united army. However, hard facts intrude. The Chinese communists moved across Northern China and compelled Japanese forces to surrender to them. Chiang responded by ordering the Japanese to fight off the communists and recover any territory they had lost. Meanwhile, both Chinese and Nationalist forces started to move into Manchuria (everything always seems to come back to Manchuria). US intervenes to protect Beijing and helicopters Nationalist forces into Manchuria (in other words, intervenes on the side of the anti-communists). Russia withdraws from Manchuria in 1946 and this sets the stage for the second Chinese civil war.
In 1945, Nationalist armed forces were double those of the Communists and they had superior American firepower. So how did the Communists win? As one scholar put it, for the nationalists to lose was a major achievement. Mismanaged the economy and inflation skyrocketed. Well connected Nationalists began to engage in currency manipulation and carpet bagging, which alienated people in the recovered areas. Lost support through punishment of collaborators squashing of peace movement, and use of the hated Japanese soldiers early on. Perception that they were the instigator of the civil war. In terms of the war, Nationalists focused on cities and railway lines, while the CCP avoided large fights. So Nationalists became overextended. Chinese communists infiltrate the North East and begin the same tactics of peasant mobilization. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kqttwh2grme Post Civil War China To do a bit of recap, for much of its modern history prior to 1949, China was thoroughly penetrated by imperial powers that integrated it unevenly into the global capitalist system, principally through unequal treaties at port cities. Then there was a long civil war between Nationalist and Communists that was won by the Communists in 1949. They then consolidated control over the China and recaptured almost all of the territory of the Qing empire minus Taiwan (which was conquered by the Nationalists) and Hong Kong (which remained British).
In world historical terms, A defining feature of the 1949-1979 years was the withdrawal of China and its 600 million people (now at 1.6 billion) from the capitalist system in an attempt to build its own socialist system. To give you a brief overview of Mao s China: First of all, we see a virtual annihilation of China s domestic and international capitalists. This happens over roughly a decade (at first they were tolerated because of their expertise ), and occurs in a number of ways. Repression is certainly one of them as in the first few years of revolution, an estimated 1.5 million are killed through purges, arrests, and executions. Wealth confiscation is another method as the state took over assets of businesses and wealthy landlords and either redistributed them or put them into projects of industrialization or simply stole them (China s problem of endemic corruption did not end). The Maoist bureaucracy also created new class categories that discriminated against alleged rightists. In the peasant communities, the government first set up mutual aid societies (borrowed from Anarchism), the introduced forced top-down collectivization (farm land were collectively owned by the state). Finally, in the economy, the state took over major industries and imported Soviet technologies and development methods. Features of Maoism: Personality cult surrounding Mao (Borrowed from Stalin). More so then the Soviet Union, the regime relied on mass indoctrination. And indeed, Mao claimed that the Chinese people were like a blank canvas that could be filled with revolutionary indoctrination. This was done through rectification campaigns in
which groups were encouraged to mobilize and chant revolutionary slogan. There were also a series of self-criticism campaigns where rightists, party members, intellectuals, and bureaucrats were forced to denounce themselves for alleged rightist revisionism. There were also constantly mass mobilization campaigns, the most common of which were either purges called anti campaigns (anti rightist, anti corruption, anti-waste, anti-bureaucracy, and anti-tax evasion), or five year economic plan campaigns. So this was a highly regimented, divisive, and hyper mobilized society. Power was officially concentrated in the CCP, but it was highly contentious and faction ridden. Mao always was the dominant figure, but there were constantly rivals to his power. It was acquired a sprawling bureaucracy that because of its modern and revolutionary nature penetrated into every aspect of Chinese society. The key figures were Cadres, who like previous provincial elites acquired their own power and wealth through corruption at the regional or local level (so still a chronic problem of Chinese government that continues to today). And because of the unpopularity of these groups, when there were policy failures, the CCP would often use the Cadres as scapegoats. Failures of Maoism Scholarship on the Maoist period is highly polarized and these days increasingly negative, and much of this revolves around the issue of violence. By some accounts, Mao is responsible for the deaths of more people then Hitler and Stalin Combined (find chart) 40-70 million (comparable to World War Two or the Taiping Rebellions). We have to be careful with this because these numbers are widely contested, they happened during a period of massive population explosion, and the majority of them are not from intentional murder.
However, there can be little doubt that one of the defining features of the Maoist revolution was a massive human tragedy. When Mao died in 1979, the CCP s historical verdict on his legacy was that he was 70% good and 30% bad. So if he were an undergrad student he would get a b-. And that 30% is mainly derived two incidents: The Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. The Great Leap forward was a policy of rapid industrialization in the cities and mass collectivization and mobiliazation of the peasantry for grain production. The idea was that China would industrialize through the mass production of steel and iron. In order to raise the amount of labour power, people who had to be forcibly removed from the country side into urban areas. This was supposed to increase the economic capacity of China, while proletarianizing the peasantry. At the same time, to feed the increased movement into the cities, grain quotes were supposed to radically increase (targets were five fold). To do this, modern industry and agricultural practices were imported into the country side (untested and little sensitivity to local conditions), while farms were collectivized. In addition, farmers were given furnaces in their backyards and told to melt down all their utensils to make Iron and steel. The policy was an unmitigated disaster and some scholars claim that it was the largest famine in human history and the greatest mass tragedy of the 20 th century (26-40 million killed). There were numerous problems with the program. The iron was of low quality, while the burning down of utensils and tools prevented farmers from chasing away sparrows that ate their crops. So the state launched and anti sparrow campaign, which in turn created a bug problem. Additionally, to please the CCP and Mao, Cadres lied about how much grain was being produced, which lead to further confiscation.
Meanwhile, irrigation techniques were poorly conceived which led to draughts or floods. Finally, corruption plagued the collection system, which led to a great deal of violence and coercion at the local level and break down of society (bandits, cannibalism, men selling daughters and wives into prostitution). The GLP actually hurt Mao s position within the party and for a few years he lost some of his power. However, he came back to the centre when he launched the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution from 1966-1976. Cultural revolution: When Zhang Xiaomo worked on a farm in Manchuria in the early 1970s, she shuddered at the screeching noise of trucks pulling over on the icy roads. Her mind would dart back to the summer of 1966, when gangs of men would arrive most nights in large trucks, banging on the door and ransacking the courtyard house she lived in by herself. It was the beginning of the Cultural Revolution, and her mother, hunted for her contact with the Japanese during World War II, had gone into hiding. They kept coming day after day, she recalled in her Beijing apartment recently. They were a bunch of grown-up men, and I was 13 years old, all by myself. I felt like I couldn t take it anymore. The experience still haunts her. So this I think well encapsulates many of the memories that you will read about in the west. Shared terror and this question of the Chinese soul. Begin by saying that this period is what some call China s ten lost years with an estimated 100 million taking part in it and perhaps 500 million being directly effected by it. We don t know how many died, but at least a million is the usual estimate. No one still agree upon
what it what was, let alone who was responsible for it or how to deal with it in the realm of social memory. Interpretations: Power struggle Cult of Mao thesis. Gang of four. Lin Bao (died in 1971). and the gang of four. Jiang Qing. Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen. [1] vs. Bottom up. This focuses on the role of youth and the red guard and the actual social revolution that was attempted. And here, we have to consider the role of state creation and indoctrination throughout the post-1949 years. Constant mobilization of mass campaigns, historical education that focuses on violent revolution and Mao worship, and increasing resentments towards the bureaucratic classes. I m going to do my best not to privilege one over the other so you can get a general sense of how the CR moved. Ideology of the Revolution: Mao officially conscripted the youth to purge Chinese society of the old thoughts, old culture, old customs, old habits. Causes: Political tensions between Mao s faction and the CCP bureaucracy. Mao sets up something called the Central Cultural Revolution Group in 1966, and begins with some initial purges in the areas of culture and makes the politburo directly tied to the CCRG. Mao conscripts Lui-Shao Chi to mobilize radical students to start a wall poster campaign denouncing capitalist revisionists and university professors. Second phase of the revolution in 1966, Mao mobilizes the red guards. These are young students (18) who are told to learn the revolution by making revolution by smashing bogeousie in-roaders.
Classes suspended and free transit to the cities are provided. This begins to take on a life of its own as these young men start to beat the well-off in the street, break into homes, kidnap, and smash old idols and statues from China s past. During this time close to 5,000 of 7,000 designated cultural heritage sites are destroyed. CCRG saw the advantage of this chaos and Mao encouraged the youth to take on the party elite. Two major figures, Lui and Deng Xioping are set up as the scape goats and imprisoned and humiliated. In the Third Phase 1967, red guards started to sieze power from the bureaucracy. Also during this period, the party leaders start to mobilize their own red Guard factions and the red guard to start to fight each other in the streets. Struggles meetings were also held. This was when intellectuals (anyone with more then middle school education) where brought into public forms, forced to bow their head, and confess to thought crimes. So public rituals are start to occur. There are also efforts in school to create revolutionary language by altering ciriculum and speech habits (this goes on for a decade). We also see a change in clothing style as there is an attack on western dress, and there are numerous stories of red guards stripping people and forcing them to march naked or wear revolutionary uniforms. Streets start to be renamed and red guards start publish manifestos urging the Chinese to smash the family system. So there are stories of students and youth turning their parents in or engaging public humiliatioins. With this, the Cr threatened to get out of control, so Mao ordered the Red Guards to be disbanded by the military. Two faced at first as Mao urges red guards to resist. Be sure to discuss politicization of the PLA. and they were sent down the villages to do agricultural work, engage in indoctrination activities, and gain revolutionary mindset. Mao calls
in the military to institute the remainder of the cultural revolution and through this gains total control of the bureaucracy. From 1969 afterwards, there is a power struggle over who will be Mao s successor. As Mao s health fails, the so-called Gang of four come to power and the cultural revolution takes on the form of a power struggle. Jiang Qing. Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen. [1] Immediate political struggle over the memory of the revolution. Tied to battle between Deng and Hua. Deng encourages so-called scar literature and the great wall campaign. Idea is to inculcate a vision that the so-called gang of four were responsible and the red guards were also victims of the gang of four. Done to bestow moral authority onto the regime of Deng. Late seventies Resolution on certain questions regarding the history of the country since the founding of the PR. Mao is partly to blame, but attributed to the errors of a great proletarian revolutionary who also eventually helped smash the Lin Baio clique. Later, an official party history referred to it as the most severe setback and the heaviest losses suffered by the Party, the State, and it s people since the founding of the People s Republic. Also effort to rehabilitate intellectuals and cadres killed during the CR by holding public funerals and ceremonies. Meanwhile in 1981, a public trial for the gang of four was held and they were convicted.
Key Question is the Red Guards: Mao s children, this generation was in middle school in 1965 when the CR first showed signs of starting (12 million are directly involved while 120 million come of age during this period). Revolutionaries. Many carry real or imagined resentments against landlords or bureaucracy. Identity and Ziqing: Sent down youth. This group is alienated from the state narrative which a) was entirely negative, and b) did not deal with this aspect of mass mobilization or the lived experience of the CR. Basically what happens it to leading red guards are convicted and the rest are officially forgotten about. Ziqing complex and through the internet and magazines have started to form online communities to produce and exchange memories. Contemporary criticism of capitalist China (these identities and memories are stronger and working class and peasant communities). Thirty years have gone by. Nowadays, people are all locked up in their own apartments. The Cement walls stand as solid barriers between apartments; highways have not necessarily shortened the parths to seeing one another. TV networks transmit global information. People busy themselves endlessly with existence and development. The pleasures brought by increased wealth are not sweeter than the melons we grew with our own hands in those years https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/18/opinion/a-scar-on-the-chinese-soul.html?_r=0 http://www.nybooks.com/daily/2017/01/13/china-hidden-massacres-tan-hecheng/ http://news.nationalpost.com/full-comment/terry-glavin-while-trump-rants-about-ratings-and-crowdsautocrats-make-their-plans http://m.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20170125000962#cb