GROWTH, TRANSFORMATION, REFORM: EMERGING ECONOMIES IN THE NEXT DECADE Disclaimer: The contents of this paper are of the author s sole responsibility. They do not represent the views of the China Institute for Reform and Development (CIRD) or the Economic Policy Forum (EPF). Any inquiries related to the paper s content and all permission to cite should be directed to the author. CHINA INSTITUTE FOR REFORM AND DEVELOPMENT (CIRD) ChinaReform.org CEE.CIRD@gmail.com ECONOMIC POLICY FORUM Emerging Economies Think Tank Alliance for High Quality Growth Economic-Policy-Forum.org Secretariat@Economic-Policy-Forum.org supported by
Basic Service Provision to Poor in Urban India: Policies, Achievements and Future Challenges INDIA COUNTRY REPORT Rumi Aijaz Ph.D., Senior Fellow, Observer Research Foundation, 20, Rouse Avenue, New Delhi 110002, India Tel.: +91 11 4352 0020; Fax: +91 11 4352 0003 E-mail: rumiaijaz@orfonline.org Abstract Rapidly urbanising regions of India are home to millions of poor migrant people. The migrants provide very important services to the urban residents, and play a vital role in building and running cities. However, their own living and working conditions are a matter of huge concern. The main purpose of this paper is to provide information on the impact of government policies formulated to provide housing and other basic civic amenities to the urban poor in India, and to give suggestions for addressing future challenges. Some of the topics which have been covered in the paper are: growth of urban population in India, pattern of rural to urban migration, consequences of urban migration, urban infrastructure and service inequalities, appraisal of government policies and schemes for basic service provision to poor, best practices in service delivery. Definition of Urbanisation and Urban Urbanisation has been defined in different ways: change in characteristics of an area; process associated with the development of a civilisation; redistribution of population from rural to urban settlements; etc. The term level of urbanisation implies proportion (or percentage) of urban population to total population of a place. Governments of various countries in the world also offer different definitions of urban. In India, for example, urban is defined in two ways. Places governed by a municipal Act (legislation) are called statutory towns/cities. It is the government in a State which decides what a statutory town is and declares a particular place as a statutory town. This is one category of urban centre. The other is a normative definition, which is based on certain characteristics. The Office of the Registrar and Census Commissioner of India defines an urban area as follows: (a) all statutory places with a local government; (b) a place satisfying the following three criteria simultaneously: (i) a minimum population of 5,000; (ii) at least 75 per cent of male working population engaged in nonagricultural pursuits; and (iii) a density of population of at least 400 per sq. km. (1,000 per sq. mile). Settlements that do not satisfy these criteria are treated as rural. Any place which satisfies these criteria is called for the purposes of census alone, a census town. Thus, in India when we talk about urbanisation, not only the statutory towns which are governed by a municipal Act are included, but on a more normative basis, there is a second category of towns called the census towns. Urban Population in India As per the Census of India 2011, India recorded a total population of 1.2 billion. Of this total, 377 million (31%) people were found living in 7,935 towns and 521 (468 + 53) cities/urban agglomerations 2
(UAs). 1 This number of 521 includes 50 cities/uas each having population of more than one million, and three mega cities with population of more than 10 million, namely Greater Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata. The growth rate of India s total urban population during 2001-11 was 31.8 per cent (Table 1). It is estimated that between 2010 and 2050, India will add another 497 million to its existing urban population (UN, 2012). Table 1: Urban Population in India, 2001-2011 Indicator 2001 2011 Total population of India (in billion) 1.02 1.21 Urban population of India (in million) 286 377 Urban to total population (%) 27.81 31.16 Decadal growth of urban population (%) 31.5 31.8 Number of towns 5161 7935 Number of UAs/cities (population 100,000 +) 384 468 Number of UAs/cities (population 1 million + as well as 3 mega cities) Number of mega cities (population 10 million +) Population of 3 largest mega cities/uas (in million) 35 53 (the 53 UAs account for 43 % of country s urban population) 3 3 Greater Mumbai UA: 16 Delhi UA: 13.8 Kolkata UA: 13.2 Greater Mumbai UA: 18.4 Delhi UA: 16.3 Kolkata UA: 14.1 Source: Census of India, 2011. An important observation in recent times is the marked change in the size of India s urban population. The data show that for the first time since India gained independence from the British Empire in 1947, the absolute increase in population has been more in urban areas than in rural areas. During the decade 2001-11, while the rural population grew by 12 per cent, the urban population grew by as much as 32 per cent. The data further reveal that the growth in rural population has been steadily declining since 1991. The decadal trend of India s urban population during 1901-2011 is presented in Table 2 and Figure 1. A high decadal urban growth rate (41%) was observed during the period 1941-51, after which the rate fell in 1951-61. The decline is due to the country s partition which led to an emigration of more than 10 million people and death of about one million. Again the rate rose steadily in 1961-71 and peaked in 1981 (46%). Since then it has fallen in the decades and now is almost in a slight incline. After 1971-81, growth rates have fallen possibly due to declining rural to urban migration and increasing concentration of population in rural areas adjacent to large urban centres because of high living costs in urban areas. 1 In India, towns with population of 100,000 and above are called cities. There is also a concept of Urban Agglomeration (UA), which is a continuous urban spread constituting a city/town and its adjoining urban outgrowths (OGs), or two or more physically contiguous towns together and any adjoining urban outgrowths of such towns (Census of India, 2001). 3
Table 2: Total, Rural and Urban Population in India, 1901-2011 Census Year Total Population (in million) Population (in million) Variation Over Past Decade (in per cent) Rural Urban Rural Urban 1901 238.4 212.54 25.85 -- -- 1911 252.1 226.10 25.90 6.40 0.36 1921 251.3 223.23 28.09-1.29 8.26 1931 279.0 245.51 33.46 9.98 19.12 1941 318.7 274.50 44.20 11.81 31.98 1951 361.1 298.64 62.44 8.80 41.40 1961 439.2 360.30 78.94 20.64 26.41 1971 548.2 439.05 109.11 21.86 38.23 1981 683.3 525.60 157.70 19.32 46.14 1991 846.4 630.60 215.80 20.04 36.44 2001 1028.7 742.62 286.12 18.09 31.51 2011 1210.2 833.09 377.11 12.18 31.80 Source: ibid. Figure 1: Decadal Variation in India s Rural and Urban Population, 1901-11 to 2001-11 Source: ibid. The percentage of urban population to total population in 28 Indian States and 7 Union Territories 2 (UTs) for the years 2001 and 2011 is shown in Figure 2. In 2011, among the UTs, high percentages 2 A Union Territory (UT) is an administrative division of India in the federal framework of governance. Unlike the States of India, which have their own elected governments, UTs are ruled directly by the federal government; 4
(above 65%) were recorded in Delhi (97.50%), Chandigarh (97.25%), Lakshadweep (78.08%), Daman and Diu (75.16%), and Puducherry (68.31%). Among the States, the percentage share of urban population was high (above 40%) in Goa (62.17%), Mizoram (51.51%), Tamil Nadu (48.45%), Kerala (47.72%), Maharashtra (45.23%) and Gujarat (42.58%). The States and UTs that have observed high percentage decadal growth of urban population (above 65%) during 2001-11 are Daman and Diu (218.37%), Dadra and Nagar Haveli (216.73%), Sikkim (153.43%), Kerala (92.72%), Lakshadweep (86.55%), Tripura (76.08%) and Nagaland (67.38%). In terms of numbers, urban population in 2011 was high (above 20 million) in Maharashtra (50.83 million), Uttar Pradesh (44.47 million), Tamil Nadu (34.95 million), West Bengal (29.13 million), Andhra Pradesh (28.35 million), Gujarat (25.71 million), Karnataka (23.58 million) and Madhya Pradesh (20.06 million). Figure 2: Percentage of Urban Population in Indian States and Union Territories during 2001 and 2011 2001 2011 Source: ibid. Rural to Urban Migration A number of factors are responsible for growth of urban population, such as natural increase (births), rural to urban and urban to urban migration, changes in municipal boundaries, and formation of new urban centres. In India, rural to urban migrants account for a sizeable urban population. People living in rural areas (villages) face numerous problems with respect to their livelihood and access to basic services such as proper housing, education, health, water, sanitation, roads, electricity, etc. Although rural farmers grow food and other agro products for the nation, they do not get sufficient monetary returns and live a deplorable life. Though there is national concern about rural development, the impact of government policies is marginally felt at the village level. the President of India appoints an Administrator or Lieutenant-Governor for each territory. There are seven union territories in India, namely Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, National Capital Territory of Delhi, Lakshadweep and Puducherry. 5
Rural to urban migration is, therefore, a response to stagnant growth and development in rural areas, as well as diverse economic opportunities available in rapidly urbanising Indian cities. Since income generating activities are unable to support the rural population, villagers often migrate to towns and cities. Such movement is associated with the level of economic and social development of a place. Employment, education and marriage are important reasons for rural to urban migration in India. As per information available in literature, reasons for migration can be classified into two broad categories: (i) push factors, which cause people to leave their place of residence, such as pressure on land, lack of basic infrastructural facilities, etc; and (ii) pull factors, which attract the people from different places, such as better job opportunities, better health facilities, etc. Further details are provided below. Reasons for Migration Economic and Development Unemployment and poverty: Rural to urban migration happens for jobs and higher wages. There is greater unemployment in agricultural sector than in industrial and other major sectors due to overburdening of agricultural land. Thus, incidence of unemployment is much higher in rural areas than in urban areas. 38 per cent of males in India migrate due to work and employment reasons, whereas only 3 per cent of females migrate due to this reason. A direct implication of unemployment is poverty. Also, those who are employed in agriculture have low productivity and incomes due to an adverse land-man ratio. Incidence of poverty is also high among wage labourers who are engaged in occasional work. Lack of basic infrastructural facilities: This is the second most significant reason for rural to urban migration. Rural areas usually do not have basic amenities like water and sanitation, schools, health centres, electricity, etc. Thus, rural dwellers are attracted to the cities with better infrastructure facilities like housing, transportation, communication and other basic amenities. There are good hospitals, healthcare centres, medical stores and experienced doctors. Also, a good network of roads and several types of vehicles are available to travel from one area to the other. Education: Villagers find themselves short of any skills or education due to lack of higher education and vocational training facilities in the rural areas. On the other hand, urban areas have a large number of educational institutions like schools, colleges, universities, and vocational institutes. As better education is the basis for earning higher income, people migrate to cities. Geographical Climate and topography: Factors like difficult terrain, extreme temperatures, vegetation and quality of soil also play a role in people s decision to migrate. People may migrate from villages in the mountains and desert regions due to extreme weather and topographical conditions. Natural disasters: Migration may also take place due to calamities like landslides in hilly areas, floods, tsunami and cyclonic storms in coastal rural areas or earthquakes. Survival during drought and famines, especially during the summer seasons is almost impossible in rural areas due to no alternate option left with the people. Social and Cultural Bright city lights: The allure of cities tempts rural dwellers to break away from traditional identities since the cities showcase a true merging of modernity and antiquity. They feel their vivid dreams will come true in the sheer vastness, modish appearance and hi-tech ambience of the cities. Marriage: Women in India shift from their place of birth after marriage. Majority of females (68 %) migrate due to this cultural phenomenon. Migration due to marriage for males is much less (2 %). 6
Movement of parents/earning members: Many people migrate along with their earning family members. About 30 per cent of the rural migrants migrate to the urban areas due to this reason. Political and Administrative Politics and administration have a vital role to play in the maintenance of peace and stability. People may sometimes voluntarily migrate from places where there is political unrest or prevalence of corrupt practices. People may also be forcefully displaced due to ethnic and civil conflicts. Insurgency, secessionist movements, localised violence and identity-based autonomy movements in villages of north-eastern India are causing people to migrate. Religion-based violence and displacement causes migration in States like Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat and Punjab. This may lead to a rise in internally displaced people (IDPs) who are different from refugees in the sense that their areas of destinations are not across the borders. They resettle in a different place but within their country of origin. Number of Migrants Census of India data on migration are available for the period 1991-2001. During the last 10 years, of the total 97.5 million internal migrants in the country, about 20.6 million persons (21.1%) moved from rural to urban areas, and 6.2 million persons (6.4%) moved from urban to rural areas (Table 3). Thus, 14.3 million was the net addition to urban population due to rural to urban migration. This works out to be 6.6 per cent of the urban population in 1991. Table 3: Number and Proportion of Migrants in India, 1991-2001 Migration Streams Number of Migrants Per cent of Total Rural to urban migration 20,595,231 Migrants 21.1 Urban to rural migration 6,266,503 6.4 Total migration (includes four streams: rural to rural, rural to urban, urban to rural, urban to urban, unclassified migrants) Source: Census of India, 2001. 97,560,320 100.0 Further details on rural to urban migration within and between States are provided in Table 4. Of the total 97.5 million internal migrants in the country based on last residence during the last 10 years (1991-2001), 80 million were those who migrated from one part of the State or district to another within the same State. Of the total intra-state migrants, rural to urban stream constituted 17.6%. With respect to inter-state migrants, share of rural to urban migration was higher (37.9%) indicating that the choice of town is not limited to those within the State while migrating. Table 4: Intra State and Inter State Rural to Urban Migration in India, 2001 Migration Stream Number Proportion Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Intra State Migrants Rural to Urban 14,222,276 6,503,461 7,718,815 17.6 27.1 13.6 Total Migrants 80,733,441 23,998,283 56,735,158 100.0 100.0 100.0 Inter State Migrants Rural to Urban 6,372,955 3,803,737 2,569,218 37.9 44.7 30.9 Total Migrants 16,826,879 8,512,161 8,314,718 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: ibid. Note: Total migrants consist of all four streams (urban to urban, rural to urban, rural to rural, urban to rural, unclassified migrants) 7
Table 5 shows the position of rural to urban migration in top 10 Indian States. In terms of internal rural to urban migration within each State by last residence during the last 10 years, the north eastern Indian States of Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland reported the highest proportions. Table 5: Intra-State Rural to Urban Migration in Top 10 States of India, 2001 State Number of Migrants Per cent of Migrants Mizoram 32,555 39.1 Meghalaya 10,823 27.4 Nagaland 13,782 26.8 Arunachal Pradesh 31,984 26.1 Gujarat 1,420,541 25.9 Tamil Nadu 852,824 23.3 Haryana 339,483 21.9 Maharashtra 2,653,862 21.2 Karnataka 1,033,723 21.2 Jammu & Kashmir 79,163 21.1 Source: ibid. Recent data on migration for the period 2007-08 are available from sample surveys conducted by the National Sample Survey Office. The sample comprises a total of 125,578 households, of which 79,091 are rural households and the remaining 46,487 are urban households. The findings of the survey are briefly mentioned below: Nearly 57 per cent of urban migrant households migrated from rural areas (Figure 3) Rural to urban migration stream shared nearly 20 per cent of the total internal migrants Nearly 60 per cent of urban male migrants and 59 per cent of urban female migrants had migrated from rural areas. Figure 3: Migration to Urban Areas of India, 2007-2008 Source: National Sample Survey Office, 2010. Consequences of Urban Migration There are numerous consequences of rural to urban migration, which may be classified in economic, demographic, social, cultural and environmental spheres. Positive Consequences The migrants send remittances (payments) to their homes in villages which are used by their family members for purchasing food, repayment of debts, medical treatment, construction of houses, etc. 8
This helps their family to come out from poverty-stricken life and increases their standard of living. This in turn helps in the growth of the rural economy. Migration leads to the redistribution of population within a country. A job shifting has been seen which may vary from domestic servants to factory workers. Also, there is a gradual shift from agricultural to non-agricultural activities. This is one of the important factors contributing to the population growth in cities. Migrants act as agents of social change. The new ideas and laws related to latest technologies, family planning, girl s education, inter-caste marriages, etc., are spread from urban to rural areas through them. It also leads to intermixing of people from diverse cultures and results in the evolution of a composite culture. There is thus a change in the mind set of people. They start thinking broadly and the narrow views change. Migration widens their horizon and pulls them out from their rural superstitious beliefs to a new world of rational thinking. Negative Consequences Migration causes anonymity, which creates a social vacuum and sense of dejection among individuals. There are people from different income groups which reside in urban areas and unequal distribution of income and wealth is clearly visible. In a way the gap between the people widens since the poor people face an inferiority complex and in turn suffer from mental and emotional vulnerability and low self-esteem. Continued feeling of dejection often prompts people to fall in the trap of antisocial activities like crime and drug abuse. The migrant population is mostly engaged in informal sector activities. They do not have security of livelihood and often face police harassment and interference at the time of work. Moreover, there is ignorance about the procedure to obtain work licenses, social security benefits and schemes, etc. Many persons employed in the waste sector work under unhealthy and hazardous conditions and are not equipped with proper and safe equipment. In most cases, daily earnings are much less as compared to the services offered. Large number of people in urban areas has put pressure on the existing social and physical infrastructure and services, such as housing, roads, public transport, schools, heath care centres, drinking water, sanitation, electricity, etc. An appraisal of selected urban development indicators at the all-india level reveals significant inequalities (Table 6). Moreover, due to over-exploitation of natural resources, cities are facing the acute problem of depletion of ground water and air pollution. 9
Table 6: India: Urban Sector Inequalities Urban Sector Indicator Status Source of Data and Reference Year Poverty -- Number of poor in urban areas 52.8 million Planning Commission, 2011-12 -- Urban population below poverty line 13.7 % Planning Commission, 2011-12 Housing Urban housing shortage 19 million Twelfth Five Year Plan, Slums -- Slum households to total urban households / slum population to total urban population -- Total slum population -- Decadal growth of slum population, 2001-11 -- Number of towns having slums -- Number of towns having slums dwelling units 17.4 % 65.49 million 25.1 % 2012-17 Census of India, 2011 Census of India, 2011 Census of India, 2011 1,743 2,613 Census of India, 2001 Census of India, 2011 Public transport Share of public transport in cities 27 % Ministry of Urban Development, 2008 Education Urban literacy rate 84 % Census of India, 2011 Health Urban infant mortality rate 29 deaths for every 1,000 live births Drinking water Drainage Toilet -- Urban households using tap water from untreated sources -- Urban households not having source of drinking water within premises Urban households not having drainage facility Urban households not having toilet facility within premises Office of the Registrar General of India, Sample Registration System, 2011 8.6 % Census of India, 2011 29 % Census of India, 2011 18.2 % Census of India, 2011 18.6 % Census of India, 2011 Rural to urban migration results in imbalances in sex composition due to selective male or female migration. Large cities have unfavourable sex ratio as compared to rural areas due to high male immigration. This is because men are usually the earning members of the rural families and therefore they move out of rural areas in search of employment to take care of their families. Migration also affects women and children in rural areas since the males migrate leaving their family behind, which puts an extra physical as well as mental pressure on the women and increases their vulnerability. They are left alone with their children and hence overall development of the children gets affected. Unregulated migration to the metropolitan cities has caused overcrowding. Non-availability of houses has given rise to slums. 3 In slum localities, there is an increased spread of infectious diseases because of poor living and environmental conditions. Migrants belonging to the middle and high income group are able to afford their living in planned and authorised areas of the city. However, a large number of migrants belonging to the low income group find vacant public and private lands (including lands located near railway lines, airport, large open 3 Definition of slum: A compact area of at least 300 population or about 60-70 households of poorly built congested tenements, in unhygienic environment usually with inadequate infrastructure and lacking in proper sanitary and drinking water facilities (Census of India). 10
drains and surface water bodies) as an ideal place to reside, as they are not required to pay any property tax, fee or rent for occupying the area. The poor migrant families build small living places on their own, about the size of a very small room with low roof, using temporary or makeshift building materials. Most slum households have no kitchen, piped water supply, toilet or electricity facilities inside the premises (Table 7). They do not have security of tenure of slums they inhabit, and thus, there is constant fear of eviction. Further, the poorly built temporary structure does not protect the dweller from extreme weather conditions. Also, due to large population size of each family, there is overcrowding within a tiny dwelling unit. Table 7: Status of Housing and Access to Basic Services in Indian Slums, 2011 S. No. Indicator Status (in per cent) 1 Good condition of house 58.4 2 Ownership of house 70.2 3 Households using tap as main source of drinking water 74.0 4 Households having source of drinking water within premises 56.7 5 Households having toilet facility within premises 66.0 6 Households having a bathroom or enclosure without roof 81.0 7 Households availing banking service in slum areas 53.2 8 Slum population without basic facilities 33.0 9 Literacy rate in slums 78.0 10 Work participation rate in slums 36.0 Source: Census of India (2011): Report on Housing Stock, Amenities and Assets in Slums. Government Policies and Schemes for Equitable Urban Development A number of initiatives have been undertaken in India to address the concerns of the urban population. Table 8 provides information on the national level agencies responsible for urban development, recent government policies and restructuring programmes. 11
Table 8: Urban Government Organisations, Policies and Restructuring Programmes in India Component Planning Commission: Housing and Urban Affairs Division Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (MoH&UPA) Description Looks after the programmes pertaining to Ministry of Urban Development and Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation; closely associated with the formulation of policies; oversees the activities of government institutes engaged in urban development. Responsible for formulating policies, supporting and monitoring programmes and coordinating the activities of various Central Ministries, State Governments and other nodal authorities. Formulates policies, sponsors and supports programme, coordinates the activities of various Central Ministries, State Governments and other nodal authorities and monitors the programmes concerning all the issues of urban employment, poverty and housing in the country. National policies Transport (2006) Housing and Habitat (2007) Sanitation (2008) Street Vendors (Revised in 2009) Missions, programmes and schemes Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) subcomponents: - Urban infrastructure and governance (UIG) - Basic services to the urban poor (BSUP) - Urban infrastructure development scheme for small and medium towns (UIDSSMT) - Integrated housing and slum development programme (IHSDP) North eastern region urban development programme (NERUDP) National urban information system scheme (NUIS) Rajiv awas yojana (affordable housing scheme for slum free India) Integrated low cost sanitation scheme Swarna jayanti shahari rozgar yojana (urban employment scheme) Sustainable urban transport project Metro rail project Source: Planning Commission, Ministry of Urban Development, Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation. The Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) is the major urban development initiative of the Indian Government. It was launched on 3 December 2005. Under the mission, States and local governments can avail financial, technical and institutional support for implementation of infrastructure projects and governance reforms. Progress of Pro-poor Reforms With respect to the urban poor, the mission provides for three pro-poor reforms. The status of implementation of these reforms is provided in Table 9. 12
Table 9: Implementation Status of Pro-poor Reforms, 2011 Reform Internal earmarking of funds within local bodies budget for basic services to the urban poor Provision of basic services to the urban poor including security of tenure at affordable prices, improved housing, water supply and sanitation, and ensuring delivery of other existing universal services, i.e., education, health and social security, in a time bound manner. Earmarking at least 20-25 per cent of developed land in all housing projects (both public and private agencies) for economically weaker sections and low income groups with a system of cross subsidisation. Provision of housing either in situ or in a new location with basic infrastructure amenities in a healthy environment Implementation Status Number of urban local bodies (ULBs)/parastatals committed to implement the reform by 2010-11: 64 Number of urban local bodies (ULBs)/parastatals that have implemented the reform: 55 Out of 39 mission cities selected for audit scrutiny, provision of basic services to urban poor was reported to have been put in place in 22 cities. Number of urban local bodies (ULBs)/parastatals committed to implement the reform by 2010-11: 54 Number of urban local bodies (ULBs)/parastatals that have implemented the reform: 39 Total dwelling units approved for construction: 1,606,917 Dwelling units completed: 39% Dwelling units occupied: 60% Source: Comptroller and Auditor General of India, 2012, pp. 28-30. Note: Implementation status as reported by Ministry of Urban Development and Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation. The findings of an audit report with respect to the accomplishment of reforms help in understanding the problems being faced in various initiatives and the future challenges. It is learnt that: Several housing and infrastructure projects have remained incomplete. Problems are being faced with regard to availability of litigation free land; delay in land acquisition; site occupied by slum dwellers; encroachments, low lying areas. Norms for construction of dwelling units (number of rooms, balcony, kitchen, toilet, etc.) are not being followed. Despite completion of dwelling units, allotment to eligible beneficiaries is progressing at a slow pace. The contribution from beneficiaries (at least 12 per cent of the cost of construction) is not being collected. Diversion of funds for other purposes is taking place in housing projects. At many places in the country where dwellings were constructed, the supporting infrastructure and living conditions were not suitable. Problems included presence of garbage dump yard, narrow approach roads to the colony, water seepage from the house ceiling, no water connection, etc. Ceiling cost of INR 80,000 (about 1,300 USD) per dwelling unit as national government share has disappointed many urban local governments considering the spurt in input cost. There is a risk of ineligible beneficiaries deriving benefits of the scheme intended for the urban poor. 13
Meeting the Needs of the Urban Poor However, there is also evidence of initiatives put in place in different parts of India to meet the needs of the urban poor. A few examples describing the approach followed in providing affordable housing and basic services are briefly mentioned below. Chandigarh Administration: Slum redevelopment initiative by using biometric surveys and IT based technologies to validate urban poor living in slums (socio-economic survey), issue of smart cards, allotment of flat initially on monthly license fee basis, ownership rights to be provided after 20 years (security of tenure), simplifying procedures and forms. Jagityal Municipality (Andhra Pradesh): Improved access of urban poor to piped water supply by alliance with Andhra Pradesh Urban Finance and Infrastructure Development Corporation and its subsidised loan scheme, survey of number of poor households / beneficiaries and water condition in slums, reducing connection costs, simplification of procedures, intensive advertising of scheme. Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation (Maharashtra): Improved access of urban poor to piped water supply by upgrading distribution networks, increasing storage capacity, installing free water meters, simplifying procedures (ward officer made in charge of connections, technical staff made in charge of offering assistance for connections in place of plumbers), reducing connection costs, organising periodic community consultations and zonal meetings to monitor and support process of improving access. Tiruchirappalli City Municipal Corporation (Tamil Nadu): Improved access of urban poor to better sanitation by involving a community-based organisation (namely Gramalaya), conducting a need assessment survey and focus group discussions, forming self-help groups (SHGs), formation of teams and committees from among the SHGs to spread awareness, giving loans to needy with less interest rates. Vijayawada Municipal Corporation (Andhra Pradesh): Improved access of urban poor to piped water supply by listing areas without connections, subsidising connections, simplifying procedures, adoption of communication and campaign strategy before implementation, hiring additional labour, designing software to monitor sanctioning and physical commissioning of connections. Conclusion Indian towns and cities display striking inequalities in urban development. This is observed from the differences in living and working conditions of various sections of the society. To minimise the inequalities and create a socially inclusive society, numerous initiatives have been taken by the Indian government, some of which have brought about a desirable change for the better. For the creation of equitable urban centres and to ensure that the poor migrant population has greater access to basic civic services, the following additional steps may be suggested: Guarantee that all urban residents have resources, opportunities and capability to have a voice so that they can influence decisions that affect them. Plans should be prepared and implemented by adopting a participatory approach. Ensure that policies and programmes are designed, developed and coordinated across government. Establish partnerships between all levels of government, businesses and civil society organsations. Develop better understanding of the requirements of institutions responsible for meeting needs of the urban poor, build their capabilities and ensure accountability, rule of law and transparency in governance. Learn from success stories, in terms of the comprehensive approaches / governances strategies adopted to address concerns of the urban poor. 14
Formulate and implement realistic benchmarks/norms and standards for slum rehabilitation; development work should be complete in all respects before allotment; non-government organisations to be involved for improving service (education, health, sanitation, drinking water, etc.) delivery. Urban centres should be planned and developed by taking into account the requirements (housing, basic needs and livelihood) of the persons engaged in informal activities and migrant population. The basic land laws are required to be in place. There is a need to map each record and boundaries by using GIS. The offices of the registrars of land need modernisation, computerisation, etc. The valuation regime of land should be modernised. Housing market should cater to all socio-economic groups. State policy should focus on providing affordable housing. Housing finance companies should be encouraged and these should help in building financial, savings and repayment awareness among its customers. 15
References Census of India (2001): Migration Tables (Tables D1, D2 and D3), Data Highlights. Census of India (2011): Provisional Population Totals, Paper 2, Vol. 1, Rural-Urban Distribution, India, Series 1. Comptroller and Auditor General of India (2012): Performance Audit of Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, New Delhi: Government of India. Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation (2012): Annual Report 2011-12, GoI. National Sample Survey Office (2010): Migration in India 2007-08, NSS 64 th Round (July 2007 to June 2008), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, New Delhi: Government of India. National Urban Water Awards: http://www.waterawards.in/index.php Observer Research Foundation (2013): Report of the Workshop on Affordable and Liveable Housing for the Migrants and Urban Poor, 25 July, Workshop organised in partnership with Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), New Delhi. Observer Research Foundation (2011): Report of the Workshop on Unorganised Sector in Delhi: Status, Problems and Perceptions, 30 May. Workshop organised in partnership with Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung (RLS), New Delhi. Planning Commission, Twelfth Five Year Plan 2012-17, Chapter 18 Urban Development, New Delhi: Government of India. Planning Commission (2013): Press Note on Poverty Estimates, 2011-12, New Delhi: Government of India. United Nations (2012): Africa and Asia to lead urban population growth in the next four decades, Press Release, 5 April 2012, New York. 16