PREFACE TO THE NINETEENTH EDITION... V TABLE OF CASES... XXV TABLE OF AUTHORITIES... XXXIX THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA... LIX Chapter 1. The Supreme Court s Authority and Role... 1 Section 1. The Power of Judicial Review... 1 Marbury v. Madison... 2 The Background and Meaning of Marbury v. Madison... 9 Section 2. Supreme Court Authority to Review State Court Judgments... 16 Martin v. Hunter s Lessee... 17 Further Clashes Between Supreme Court and State Court Authority... 19 Section 3. Judicial Exclusivity in Constitutional Interpretation... 20 Cooper v. Aaron... 21 The Authoritativeness of Supreme Court Decisions... 22 Political Restraints on the Supreme Court... 30 Section 4. Constitutional and Prudential Limits on Constitutional Adjudication: The Case or Controversy Requirements... 34 Advisory Opinions... 35 Standing... 38 Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife... 38 Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency... 44 The Constitutional and Prudential Elements of Standing... 47 Mootness and Ripeness... 58 Political Questions... 60 Baker v. Carr... 61 Distinguishing Legal from Political Questions... 67 Chapter 2. Federalism: History and Principles... 77 Section 1. The Location of Sovereignty in the Federal System... 79 McCulloch v. Maryland... 79 The Background and Meaning of McCulloch v. Maryland... 89 U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton... 95 Term Limits and McCulloch... 100 Section 2. The Limits of the Necessary and Proper Clause... 101 United States v. Comstock... 104 Federalism-Based Limits on the Necessary and Proper Clause?... 106 Section 3. Values Served by Federalism... 109 Chapter 3. The Commerce Power and Its Federalism-Based Limits...115 Section 1. The Commerce Power Before the New Deal... 116 Gibbons v. Ogden... 116 Judicial Limits on the Commerce Power... 118 xi
xii Hammer v. Dagenhart [The Child Labor Case]... 123 Section 2. The Commerce Power and the New Deal... 124 Section 3. The Commerce Power After the New Deal... 131 NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp.... 131 United States v. Darby... 133 Wickard v. Filburn... 136 Judicial Deference Toward Exercise of the Commerce Power... 137 Section 4. The Contemporary Commerce Power... 142 United States v. Lopez... 142 Rehnquist-Era Restrictions on the Commerce Power... 149 United States v. Morrison... 151 The Commerce Power Strikes Back?... 154 Gonzales v. Raich... 155 Commerce Clause Review Leading up to the Affordable Care Act... 161 National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius... 163 NFIB and the Commerce Power... 169 Section 5. The Tenth Amendment as an External Constraint on the Federal Commerce Power... 171 New York v. United States... 177 The Scope and Limits of the Anticommandeering Principle... 181 Section 6. State Sovereign Immunity and the Eleventh Amendment... 187 Chapter 4. The National Taxing and Spending Powers and Their Federalism-Based Limits... 195 Section 1. The Taxing Power as a Regulatory Device... 195 Child Labor Tax Case [Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.]... 195 National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius... 201 The Taxing Power as a Federal Regulatory Device After NFIB... 203 Section 2. The Spending Power as a Regulatory Device... 204 United States v. Butler... 205 The Spending Power After the New Deal... 208 South Dakota v. Dole... 212 The Spending Power Between Dole and NFIB... 215 National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius... 217 The Spending Power After NFIB... 224 Chapter 5. Federal Limits on State Regulation of Interstate Commerce... 227 Section 1. The Dormant Commerce Clause... 227 The Nondiscrimination Principle... 228 The History of the Dormant Commerce Clause... 231 Gibbons v. Ogden... 232 The Nascent Dormant Commerce Clause... 234 Facial Discrimination Against Out-of-State Commerce... 237 Philadelphia v. New Jersey... 237 Home Processing Requirements... 245 Dean Milk Co. v. Madison... 245 C & A Carbone, Inc. v. Clarkstown... 247
xiii United Haulers Ass n v. Oneida-Herkimer Solid Waste Management Authority... 249 The Dean Milk-Carbone-United Haulers Trilogy... 252 The Market Participant Exception... 254 South-Central Timber Development, Inc. v. Wunnicke... 254 The Theory and Limits of the Market Participant Exception... 258 Facially Neutral Laws with Protectionist Purpose or Effect... 260 Baldwin v. G.A.F. Seelig, Inc.... 260 H.P. Hood & Sons v. Du Mond... 262 Identifying Protectionism in Facially Neutral Laws... 263 Facially Neutral Laws with a Disproportionate Adverse Effect on Commerce... 267 Kassel v. Consolidated Freightways Corp.... 269 Balancing Interstate Harm Against Local Benefit... 274 Section 2. The Interstate Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV... 278 United Building & Construction Trades Council v. Mayor and Council of Camden... 279 The Scope and Limits of Interstate Privileges and Immunities... 284 Section 3. Congressional Ordering of Federal-State Relationships by Preemption and Consent... 285 Congressional Preemption of State Regulation... 285 Pacific Gas & Elec. Co. v. State Energy Resources Conservation & Development Comm n... 286 Modes of Preemption Analysis... 290 Congressional Consent to State Regulation... 294 Section 4. Other Aspects of Federal-State Relationships... 297 State Taxation of Interstate Business and Income... 297 Intergovernmental Tax Immunities... 298 Intergovernmental Regulatory Immunities... 299 Mutual Obligations Among the States... 300 Chapter 6. Separation of Powers...303 Section 1. Executive Assertions of Power... 304 Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer [The Steel Seizure Case]... 304 Executive Authority to Make National Domestic Policy... 312 Zivotofsky v. Kerry... 314 Executive Authority over Foreign and Military Affairs... 322 Dames & Moore v. Regan... 323 Dames & Moore in Light of Youngstown... 327 Section 2. Executive Discretion in Times of War or Terrorism... 330 The President, Congress, and War Powers... 330 Emergency Constitutionalism... 333 Executive Detention and Trial of Enemy Combatants... 339 Ex parte Quirin... 341 Quirin and the Executive Response to 9/11... 344 Hamdi v. Rumsfeld... 349 The Scope of Hamdi... 358
xiv Hamdan v. Rumsfeld... 361 The Aftermath of Hamdan... 368 Boumediene v. Bush... 369 Assessing Hamdi, Hamdan and Boumediene... 377 Section 3. Congressional Authority to Restrain and Enable the Executive... 380 Congressional Control over the Actions of the Executive Branch... 381 INS v. Chadha... 383 Bicameralism and Presentment... 389 Clinton v. New York... 391 Congressional Constraints on Appointment and Removal of Executive Officers... 394 Bowsher v. Synar... 398 Morrison v. Olson... 403 The Aftermath of Morrison v. Olson... 408 Section 4. Congressional War and Treaty Powers, and the Implied Power over Foreign Affairs... 413 Woods v. Cloyd W. Miller Co.... 413 Missouri v. Holland... 415 The War and Treaty Powers... 416 Section 5. Executive Privileges, Immunities and Congress s Power of Impeachment... 421 United States v. Nixon... 422 The Scope and Limits of Executive Privilege... 424 Clinton v. Jones... 427 The Implications and Aftermath of Clinton v. Jones... 432 Chapter 7. The Post-Civil War Amendments and the Incorporation of Fundamental Rights... 441 Section 1. Individual Rights Before the Civil War... 442 Barron v. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore... 442 Dred Scott v. Sandford... 445 The Aftermath of Dred Scott... 447 Section 2. The Post-Civil War Amendments... 449 Slaughter-House Cases... 449 The Meaning of the Slaughter-House Cases... 453 Saenz v. Roe... 456 Saenz v. Roe and the Right to Travel... 460 Section 3. The Incorporation of the Bill of Rights Through the Due Process Clause... 462 Duncan v. Louisiana... 466 Incorporation Since Duncan... 469 McDonald v. City of Chicago... 473 The Meaning and Implications of Heller and McDonald... 480 Chapter 8. Due Process... 483 Section 1. Substantive Due Process and Economic Liberties... 483 Lochner v. New York... 487 The Meaning and Implications of Lochner... 493
xv Nebbia v. New York... 498 The Demise of Lochner After the New Deal... 499 Minimum Rationality Review of Economic Legislation... 502 Williamson v. Lee Optical Co.... 503 Closer Scrutiny of Economic Classifications?... 504 Section 2. Substantive Due Process and Privacy... 508 Substantive Due Process, Childbearing, and Contraception... 509 Griswold v. Connecticut... 510 The Meaning and Implications of Griswold... 516 Substantive Due Process and Abortion... 520 Roe v. Wade... 520 The Meaning and Implications of Roe... 524 Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pa. v. Casey... 532 The Meaning and Implications of Casey... 538 Gonzales v. Carhart... 541 Substantive Due Process and Marriage and Family Relationships... 544 Substantive Due Process, Sexuality, and Hybrid Due Process-Equal Protection Rights... 551 Romer v. Evans... 553 The Meaning and Implications of Romer... 559 Lawrence v. Texas... 561 The Meaning and Implications of Lawrence... 568 United States v. Windsor... 572 The Meaning and Implications of Windsor... 579 Obergefell v. Hodges... 581 The Meaning and Implications of Obergefell... 588 Substantive Due Process and Rights over the Timing and Circumstances of One s Death... 590 Washington v. Glucksberg... 593 The Meaning and Implications of Glucksberg... 600 Section 3. Procedural Due Process and the Right to a Hearing... 602 Defining Property and Liberty... 602 What Process Is Due?... 607 Section 4. Textual Guarantees of Economic Liberties: The Takings Clause and the Contracts Clause... 609 The Takings Clause... 609 The Public Use Requirement... 610 Kelo v. City of New London... 613 The Meaning and Implications of Kelo... 618 Regulatory Takings... 621 Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon... 622 The Meaning and Implications of Pennsylvania Coal... 624 The Contracts Clause... 635 Home Building & Loan Ass n v. Blaisdell... 637 The Scope and Limits of Blaisdell... 639
xvi Chapter 9. Equal Protection... 643 Section 1. Minimum Rationality Review of Economic Regulation... 644 Railway Express Agency v. New York... 645 Judicial Deference to Economic Regulation... 647 U.S. Railroad Retirement Bd. v. Fritz... 652 Should Rationality Review Be Stricter?... 656 Section 2. Race Discrimination... 658 The Unconstitutionality of Racial Segregation... 658 Brown v. Board of Education [Brown I]... 663 The Meaning and Implications of Brown v. Board... 665 Implementing Brown v. Board... 669 Eliminating Other Vestiges of Segregation... 673 Loving v. Virginia... 674 Facial Discrimination Against Racial Minorities... 678 Racially Discriminatory Purpose and Effect... 682 Washington v. Davis... 686 The Meaning and Implications of Washington v. Davis... 689 Affirmative Action and Race Preferences... 692 Regents of Univ. of California v. Bakke... 693 Bakke and Amicus Briefs... 700 Race Preferences in Employment and Contracting... 700 Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Pena... 706 Affirmative Action After Croson and Adarand... 711 Grutter v. Bollinger... 712 Gratz v. Bollinger... 721 The Meaning and Implications of Grutter and Gratz... 725 Racial Diversity in K 12 Public Education... 735 Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District... 735 The Meaning and Implications of Parents Involved... 745 Race Preferences in Electoral Districting... 745 Shaw v. Reno [Shaw I]... 746 The Aftermath of Shaw I... 751 Section 3. Sex Discrimination... 756 Discriminating on the Basis of Sex... 757 Craig v. Boren... 763 Sex Equality After Craig v. Boren... 766 United States v. Virginia... 769 Sex Equality and Sex Differences... 777 Sex-Based Purpose and Effect... 786 Sex-Based Preferences: Affirmative Action for Women... 789 Section 4. Discrimination Based on Other Potentially Suspect Classifications... 793 Sexual Orientation... 793 Alienage... 793 Disability, Age, Poverty... 798 Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc.... 799 The Cabining of Suspect Classifications... 803
xvii Section 5. The Fundamental Interests Branch of Equal Protection... 805 Fundamental Interest in Voting... 806 Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections... 806 Kramer v. Union Free School District No. 15... 808 Strict Scrutiny of Vote Denials... 809 Vote Dilution : Reapportionment and Gerrymandering... 814 Reynolds v. Sims... 814 Judicial Scrutiny of Political Gerrymanders... 818 Davis v. Bandemer... 819 Political Gerrymanders After Davis... 822 Fundamental Right of Access to Courts... 825 Economic Barriers and the Criminal Process... 825 Economic Barriers and Civil Litigation... 829 M.L.B. v. S.L.J.... 831 No Fundamental Interest in Food, Shelter, Education... 836 San Antonio Independent School Dist. v. Rodriguez... 839 Chapter 10. Congress s Civil Rights Enforcement Powers...851 Section 1. The Civil Rights Statutes of the Reconstruction Era... 851 Section 2. The Requirement of State Action... 854 Civil Rights Cases... 854 The Scope and Limits of State Action After the Civil Rights Cases... 858 Shelley v. Kraemer... 861 State Action After Shelley v. Kraemer... 863 Jackson v. Metropolitan Edison Co.... 868 The State Action Doctrine After Jackson and Moose Lodge... 870 Section 3. Congressional Power to Reach Private Interference with Constitutional Rights... 876 United States v. Guest... 877 Criminal Sanctions for Private Interference with Fourteenth Amendment Rights... 879 Civil Sanctions for Private Interference with Fourteenth Amendment Rights... 881 Congressional Power to Reach Private Conduct Under the Thirteenth Amendment... 884 Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.... 884 Thirteenth Amendment Powers and the 1866 Civil Rights Act... 885 Section 4. Congressional Power to Enforce Civil Rights Under 5 of the 14th Amendment... 887 Congressional Protection of Voting Rights... 887 Katzenbach v. Morgan... 891 The Meaning and Aftermath of Katzenbach v. Morgan... 896 City of Boerne v. Flores... 901 The Meaning and Scope of Boerne... 906 Shelby County v. Holder... 908 The Voting Rights Act After Shelby County... 913 United States v. Morrison... 915 The Meaning and Scope of Morrison... 917
xviii Chapter 11. Freedom of Speech Categories of Speech Degrees of Protected Expression... 931 Section 1. Free Speech: An Overview... 931 First Amendment History... 932 First Amendment Theory... 935 First Amendment Jurisprudence... 940 Section 2. Incitement to Violence or Subversion... 946 Schenck v. United States... 947 The Clear and Present Danger Test... 948 Abrams v. United States... 951 Alternatives to Clear and Present Danger... 955 Masses Publishing Co. v. Patten... 957 Comparing the Holmes and Hand Approaches... 959 Gitlow v. New York... 961 Whitney v. California... 965 Criminal Anarchy and Syndicalism Laws... 970 Dennis v. United States... 971 Clear and Present Danger After Dennis... 977 Brandenburg v. Ohio... 979 The Meaning and Implications of Brandenburg... 981 Section 3. Fighting Words and Hostile Audiences... 986 Fighting Words... 987 Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire... 987 Fighting Words Since Chaplinsky... 988 Hostile Audiences and the Heckler s Veto... 991 Early Hostile Audiences Cases... 991 Feiner v. New York... 994 Distinguishing Feiner in Later Cases... 996 Cohen v. California... 999 Offensive Speech... 1003 Section 4. Injury to Reputation, Sensibility, Dignity, Equality... 1004 Libel... 1004 Beauharnais v. Illinois... 1004 The Legacy of Beauharnais... 1006 First Amendment Limits on Libel... 1007 New York Times Co. v. Sullivan... 1007 The Meaning and Implications of New York Times... 1010 The Scope of New York Times... 1014 Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.... 1016 Defamation of Private Parties After Gertz... 1020 Privacy Torts... 1022 Bartnicki v. Vopper... 1025 Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress... 1029 Hustler Magazine v. Falwell... 1029 Snyder v. Phelps... 1031 Hate Speech... 1035 Collin v. Smith... 1035 R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul... 1039 The Meaning and Implications of R.A.V.... 1046
xix Virginia v. Black... 1051 Section 5. Sexually Explicit Expression... 1057 Obscenity... 1058 Roth v. United States; Alberts v. California... 1058 Obscenity Between Roth and Miller... 1060 Miller v. California... 1063 Paris Adult Theatre I v. Slaton... 1066 Obscenity Law After Miller and Paris... 1071 Sexually Explicit but Nonobscene Expression... 1077 Regulating Pornography as Subordination of Women... 1078 American Booksellers Ass n v. Hudnut... 1079 Hudnut and the Social Harms of Pornography... 1083 Nudity Bans... 1084 Erznoznik v. Jacksonville... 1084 Nudity Bans After Erznoznik... 1086 Zoning Commercial Sexual Expression... 1087 Young v. American Mini Theatres... 1088 Renton v. Playtime Theatres, Inc.... 1091 City of Los Angeles v. Alameda Books, Inc.... 1093 Zoning Laws and Secondary Effects... 1097 Child Pornography... 1097 New York v. Ferber... 1098 Child Pornography as Unprotected Speech... 1101 Section 6. Speech in New Media... 1102 Indecent and Sexual Speech in New Media... 1103 FCC v. Pacifica Foundation... 1103 The Limits of Pacifica... 1108 Sable Communications, Inc. v. FCC... 1111 Total Bans on Indecent Speech on Cable and Online... 1113 Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union... 1115 Online Regulations After Reno... 1120 Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition... 1124 Violent Speech in New Media... 1127 United States v. Stevens... 1127 Regulating Violent Speech in New Media After Stevens... 1129 Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Ass n... 1130 Section 7. Commercial Speech... 1133 Virginia Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council... 1134 Commercial Speech and First Amendment Theory... 1138 Commercial Speech After Virginia Pharmacy... 1141 Central Hudson Gas v. Public Service Comm n... 1144 Commercial Speech Regulation After Central Hudson... 1147 44 Liquormart, Inc. v. Rhode Island... 1150 Commercial Speech Regulation After Liquormart... 1154
xx Chapter 12. Freedom of Speech Modes of Regulation and Standards of Review... 1161 Section 1. Content-Based and Content-Neutral Regulations... 1161 The Distinction Between Content-Based and Content-Neutral Laws... 1162 Reed v. Town of Gilbert... 1162 Content-Neutral Regulation and Symbolic Conduct... 1179 United States v. O Brien... 1180 The Significance of O Brien... 1183 Flag Desecration... 1187 Texas v. Johnson... 1189 Texas v. Johnson and Its Aftermath... 1196 Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project... 1199 The Implications of Humanitarian Law Project... 1206 Nude Dancing... 1208 Section 2. Government s Power to Limit Speech as Quasi-Private Actor... 1213 Public Forums and Public Property... 1213 Early Public Forum Cases... 1213 The Time, Place, and Manner Test... 1224 Public Order and Safety... 1225 Aesthetics... 1228 Members of City Council v. Taxpayers for Vincent... 1230 Clark v. Community for Creative Non-Violence... 1235 Tranquility, Privacy and Repose... 1239 Invalid Time, Place, or Manner Regulation... 1249 Speaker Access to Public Places Other than Traditional Public Forums... 1250 Libraries, Jails and Schools... 1251 Buses, Theaters, and Military Bases... 1254 Public and Nonpublic Forums... 1259 Religious Speech on Public Property... 1284 Spheres of Government Control: Government as Educator, Employer, and Patron... 1291 Student Speech in Public Schools... 1291 Speech and Association by Public Employees and Contractors... 1304 Public Employee Speech... 1305 Connick v. Myers... 1306 Pickering and Connick Compared... 1310 Public Employee Political Party Affiliation... 1317 Speech-Restrictive Conditions on Public Funds... 1324 Agency for International Development v. Alliance for Open Society International, Inc.... 1340 Section 3. Overbreadth, Vagueness, and Prior Restraint... 1346 Overbreadth... 1346 Vagueness... 1361 Prior Restraint... 1364 Licensing... 1364
xxi Injunctions... 1372 Near v. Minnesota ex rel. Olson... 1373 Prior Restraint and National Security... 1376 New York Times Co. v. United States [The Pentagon Papers Case]... 1376 The Scope and Limits of Pentagon Papers... 1382 Prior Restraint and Fair Trial... 1385 Chapter 13. Beyond Speaking Compelled Speech, Association, Money, and the Media... 1387 Section 1. Compelled Speech: The Right Not to Speak... 1387 Compelled Individual Speech... 1388 State Compelled Access to Private Forums... 1397 Compelled Speech, Commercial Speech, and Economic Regulation... 1403 Compelled Speech and Private Discrimination... 1409 Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Group of Boston [GLIB]... 1409 Hurley s Reach... 1411 Section 2. Freedom of Expressive Association... 1413 Compelled Disclosure of Membership... 1414 NAACP v. Alabama... 1414 Compelled Disclosure in the Civil Rights Era... 1416 Compelled Disclosure of Political Campaign Contributions... 1419 Restrictions on Organizational Activity... 1422 NAACP v. Button... 1423 The Meaning and Implications of NAACP v. Button... 1425 Denial of Government Benefits Because of Association... 1431 Compelled Association: The Right Not to Associate... 1434 Boy Scouts of America v. Dale... 1443 Dale and Compelled Speech and Association... 1446 Freedom of Association and Political Party Procedures... 1447 Section 3. Money and Political Campaigns... 1454 Buckley v. Valeo... 1454 Buckley s Approach and Aftermath... 1462 Parties, Corporations, PACs, Super PACs and Political Money... 1467 Enactment of and Constitutional Challenges to BCRA... 1473 McConnell v. Federal Election Commission... 1474 Federal Election Comm n v. Wisconsin Right to Life... 1480 McConnell Compared with WRTL... 1484 Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission... 1489 After Citizens United... 1497 McCutcheon v. F.E.C.... 1501 Section 4. Journalism and Media... 1506 Press Access to Government Information... 1508 Governmental Demands for Information from the Press... 1520 Branzburg v. Hayes... 1520 Journalistic Privilege After Branzburg... 1525 Laws Singling Out the Press... 1527
xxii Minneapolis Star & Tribune Co. v. Minnesota Comm r of Revenue... 1528 The Implications and Limits of Minneapolis Star... 1532 The First Amendment and the Broadcast Media... 1537 Scarcity and Access... 1538 The Information Age... 1544 Chapter 14. The Religion Clauses: Free Exercise and Establishment... 1551 Section 1. A History of the Religion Clauses... 1552 Section 2. The Definition of Religion... 1560 The Limits of Judicial Inquiry into Religious Belief... 1562 Section 3. The Free Exercise of Religion... 1563 Laws Discriminating Against Religion... 1564 Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah... 1565 Identifying Antireligious Purpose... 1569 Religious Exemptions... 1570 Sherbert v. Verner... 1573 Limiting the Scope of Mandatory Religious Exemptions?... 1575 Employment Division, Dept. of Human Resources v. Smith... 1583 Smith and Religious Exemptions... 1591 Constitutional Law by Statute: Legislative Reponses to Smith... 1597 Section 4. The Establishment Clause... 1606 Public Financial Aid to Religious Institutions... 1607 Everson v. Board of Education... 1608 Maintaining a Wall of Separation?... 1610 Mueller v. Allen... 1614 Religious Inclusion in Public Subsidies: Everson vs. Mueller... 1618 Zelman v. Simmons-Harris... 1626 The Meaning and Implications of Zelman... 1634 Religion in Public Schools... 1635 Prayer in Public Schools... 1636 Lee v. Weisman... 1639 Coercion vs. Endorsement... 1646 Religion and the Public School Curriculum... 1649 Edwards v. Aguillard... 1652 Defining Religion vs. Science... 1656 Public Displays of Religious Symbols... 1657 Lynch v. Donnelly... 1663 Applying the Endorsement Test... 1669 McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky... 1674 Van Orden v. Perry... 1680 Section 5. Reconciling the Religion Clauses... 1687 Values Reconciling the Religion Clauses... 1688 Refusing to Grant Religious Exemptions... 1689 Legislative Accommodation of Religion... 1691
xxiii Appendix. Table of Justices... 1701 INDEX... 1709