The Earth is the only planet in the solar system which supports life and home of

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: 1.1: Statement of the Problem: The Earth is the only planet in the solar system which supports life and home of numerous species is now enveloped with hydra-headed problems, among which environmental degradation is the most important and lethal. The UN Report of the Secretary-General s High Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change (2004) identified poverty, environmental degradation and infectious diseases as the first set of threats facing the world, alongside weapons proliferation, conflict and terrorism. 1 Human beings is now experiencing a never before problems in human history because of rapid environmental change brought by degradation of environmental quality. The adverse effects of environmental degradation on human rights in different forms are a serious problem in the contemporary world. The degradation places the environment in endangered category, for life of all living beings. 2 Environmental degradation simply means overall lowering of environmental quality because of adverse changes brought in by human activities in the basic structure of the components of the environment to such an extent that these adverse changes adversely affect all biological communities in general and human societies in particular. 3 Human rights are those conditions of social life without which man cannot be at his best, what is inevitable to the adequate 1

development of his personality. It creates a condition under which human can live lives with dignity. Dignity of human being is an essential concept in the society as well as in the morality, because through it the quality and honour of the people can be determined, and from the sense of dignity the concept of human rights can also be measured. There is a common belief that the dignity of human being can be measured through commercial / economic status of the people of the society and the G.N.P (Gross National Profit) of the particular state to be used as an instrument to measure of quality of human life. But it is not absolutely correct. The quality of human life is a very complex phenomenon. It is not only confined in the commercial or economic system, rather it touches the various spheres of the people, i.e. health, food, education, liberty, equality, franchise of the citizens and so on. We have a need to know, how people are enabled to live in the society in dignified manner. 4 Human beings everywhere are closely and inextricably linked to the natural environment in which they are embedded. Environmental degradation, including depletion of renewable and non-renewable resources and pollution of air, water and soils, has been adversely influences human beings in various ways and means. The World Bank has distinguished some very dangerous consequences on both health and productivity, which pose serious threats to human civilization. As per its report more than two million deaths and billions of illnesses a year are attributable to water pollution; water scarcity. Productivity is affected by the adverse effects of water pollution and by shortages of water and other natural 2

resources. Urban air pollution is responsible for 300,000.700,000 deaths annually and creates chronic health problems for many more people; in addition, 400 million to 700 million people, primarily women and children in poor rural areas, are affected by smoky indoor air. Depleted soils increase the risks of malnutrition for farmers. Productivity losses on tropical soils are estimated to be in the range of 0.5-1.5 per cent of GNP, while secondary productivity losses are due to siltation of reservoirs, transportation channels and other hydrologic investments. 5 World Health Organization estimated that in 2000 over 1.5 lakh people died due to the direct impact of climate change. As per a study by the UK Meteorological Office, the figure of which was released at the UN climate talks in Copenhagen (2009) 6 reveals that the past ten years (2000-2009) was the warmest decade recorded in past 160 years. In the next 50 years the earth will be 3-5 degrees hotter than it is today, leading to the melting of a large portion of polar ice caps, and a rise of up to 14 feet in global sea levels leading to massive floods in coastal areas. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the world s average surface temperature is expected to increase by 1.4 C to 5.8 C over the period 1990-2100 (IPCC, 2001). This represents a change that is without precedent in the last 10,000 years. Every year 25 million people die from diseases caused from polluted water and unhealthy environment. 7 According to the World watch Institute, there are more than 10 million people those who have lost their homes and land because of massive change in the environment due to human action led deforestation and desertification in African nations. 8 Ever increasing population 3

is mainly responsible for environmental degradation which leads to these serious human rights violations. Environmental Degradation is a global phenomenon and India is no exception to it. As per a study it was stated that India occupied fourth position in the list of world s top ten countries mostly affected by climate change after Vietnam, Nicaragua, and Haiti. 9 India is one of the most disaster prone countries in the world. 24 out of 35 states and Union Territories in India are vulnerable to one or the other natural disasters. The country is suffering from chronic natural disasters like flood, drought, and earthquake, which are frequently damaging the agricultural and industrial based economy of the sub-continent and stand as a big constraint in the enjoyment of human rights of its majority people. In the decade 1990-2000, an average of about 4344 people lost their lives and about 30 million people were affected by disasters every year. 10 Being a part of vast country, the state of Assam and the district of Lakhimpur are not exception to this phenomenon and human rights scenario in these regions are not satisfactory mainly due to the occurrence of frequent natural calamities mainly in the form of disastrous floods. The ferocity of floods in these regions seems to be unprecedented and so devastating that it brings untold miseries year after year to the affected population. The changing scenario of the region makes people becomes unable to cope with the situation and the human rights which were guaranteed in international human rights instruments and by Indian 4

Constitution to ensure quality of life are adversely affected by floods accompanied with erosions. Practically hazards of floods restricted the basic human rights of affected population of the study area mere as guarantees. These trends menace the long-term health of entire societies and threaten human welfare, including long-terms trend towards better nutrition, literacy, and reduced poverty. Unabated and continuous degradation of environmental quality at all levels makes mockery the various efforts adopted by international community and national governments for protection and promotion of human rights. To check the degradation of the environment and to restore the balance of Nature is the single important challenge to mankind. 11 The sole aim of human rights is to provide some immunity to fulfil some basic necessity of all human beings so that they can live a life with dignity. But dignity of human beings is unattainable if one cannot enjoy the right to life, have safe drinking water, healthy and nutritious food to eat and adequate means of livelihood due to adverse impacts of environmental degradation. Noted historian Arnold Toynbee who studied the rise and fall of twenty-one civilizations had concluded that the various civilizations became extinct when the greed for economic development overshadowed ecological concern; the resultant imbalances in the ecological environment lead to the extinction of these civilizations. 12 The rate of environmental change that people are currently witnessing has not been experienced before in human history. If development strives to raise productivity without maintaining environmental 5

safeguards, it is very natural that the future of such socio-economic order will be unsustainable. This in the long run will not only be self-defeating but selfdestructive too. Realizing the possible grave consequence eminent environmental writer Edward G S, warned By destroying the natural world, we are making our planet progressively less habitable. If current trend persist, in no more than a few decade it will cease to be capable of supporting complex from of life. This may sound farfetched, unfortunately, it is too realistic. 13 Human demand upon the earth is now of a volume and kind that, unless changed substantially, threatens the future well-being of all the living species. 14 If human rights is means of dignified life, how the lives of poor who are victims of the degraded environmental consequences, who always fight for just and mere fulfilment of their basic needs can live dignified lives? What role the state is playing to fulfil its constitutional obligations of providing human rights to affected population? These are some problems that the researcher wants to examine in the present study. The study is an attempt to examine some root causes which are mainly responsible for degradation of environmental quality and for accelerating the devastation of floods in Lakhimpur District and its impacts on specific recognized human rights like right to life, right to livelihood, right to health and right to education of the people living in flood prone areas of study area. 1.2: Theoretical Foundation: 6

Many eminent academicians with international reputation like Michael R. Anderson, Judge Weeramantry, Rene Cassin, Paul Gormely, Yves Lador, Jorge Daniel Taillant, Fatma Zohra Ksentini argue that environmental rights are intrinsically linked with human rights and therefore, exercise of certain human rights requires environmental protection to ensure a particular quality of life. To Anderson there should inalienable human rights to a satisfactory environment, and that legal means should be exist to enforce this right in a consistent and effective manner. 15 Anderson stressed on creation of an effective environmental protection system for survival of indigenous or economically marginalized groups depends immediately upon natural resources for their livelihoods and to ensure the well-being of the future generations. Damage to the environment can impair and undermine all the human rights spoken of in the Universal Declaration and other human rights instruments. 16 Weeramantry emphasised that the protection of the environment is vital part of contemporary human rights doctrine. A protected environment is a sine quo non for numerous human rights such as the right to health and the right to life itself. To him it is scarcely necessary to elaborate this interrelationship and damage to the environment can impair and undermine all the human rights spoken of in the Universal Declaration and other human rights instruments. Both are so closely connected that people can hardly imagine an environmental issue not having human rights dimension and therefore he suggested that both should be approached in a coordinate way. In his 1974 Hague Academy lecture, Nobel Prize winner Rene 7

Cassin advocated that for proper enjoyment of human rights existing concepts of human rights protection should be extended in order to include the right to a healthful and decent environment. 17 Right to pure, healthful, or decent environment is essentially a human right and that there is validity to the proposition that preservation of the ecology and environment is included within the scope of the inalienable rights of man (Paul Gormely, 1976). To him at a philosophical level, the right to a pure and clean environment falls within the scope of the right to a mere physical existence, and that the exhaustion of the Earth s resources is a major threat to man s continued existence on this planet. 18 Abuses of human rights and the environment go hand in hand, and these abuses are happening all over the world. A sound environment cannot be maintained without respect for human rights, and human rights are unattainable without a healthy and safe environment. The relationship may be conceived in two main ways. Environmental protection may be cast as a means to the end of fulfilling human rights standards. Degraded environment contribute directly to infringements of the human rights of life, health, and livelihood, acts leading to environmental degradation may constitute an immediate violation of internationally recognized human rights. On the other hand the full realization of human rights is an effective means to achieving the ends of conservation and protection of environment. It may constitute a society and political order in which claims for environmental protection are more likely to be respected. Human Rights cannot be protected unless the environment people live in is also 8

protected, and that environmental rights can often be implemented properly only when human rights are respected. The two areas of human and environmental rights are inherently linked and should therefore be approached in a co-ordinate way. 19 To Lador a sound, reliable and effective system of environmental protection would help to ensure the survival of present generation including indigenous or economically marginalized groups, who depend on immediate environment (natural resources) for their livelihood. To him environmental protection may be cast as a means to the end of fulfilling human rights standards. Since degraded physical environment contribute directly to infringement of the human rights to life, health and livelihood, acts leading to environmental degradation may constitute an immediate violation of internationally recognized human rights. A sound, reliable and effective system of environmental protection would help to ensure the survival of present generation including indigenous or economically marginalized groups, who depend on immediate environment (natural resources) for their livelihood. On the other hand full realization of existing human rights by individuals would constitute a society and political order where claims for environmental protection are more likely to be respected and would prove as an effective means to achieving the ends of protection and promotion of environment. on the other hand full realization of existing human rights by individuals would constitute a society and political order where claims for environmental protection are more likely to be respected and would prove as an effective means to achieving the ends of protection and promotion of 9

environment. Fatma Zohra Ksentini found widespread evidence that environmental degradation can affect negatively the enjoyment of a series of human rights, including right to life, health, an adequate standard of living and so on. Conversely, human rights violations may in turn cause damage to the environment. 20 As discussed in the Preliminary Report to the Sub-Commission submitted by Mrs. Fatma Zohra Ksentini on 2 August 1991 the international community has acknowledged a number of substantive human rights that can be impacted by environmental abuse. It has also acknowledged procedural rights, the restriction of which can worsen environmental degradation by diminishing relevant communication between decision-makers, affected parties, and technical experts. These rights are accorded varying degrees of recognition and enforceability under international law. Some of the rights most closely related to environmental issues and discussed in the Preliminary Report include: the right to life, the right to health, the right to development, the right of peoples to selfdetermination, the right to freedom, the right to equality, the right to adequate conditions of life, the right to suitable working conditions, the right to decent living conditions, the right [of everyone] to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care, the right to information, the right of peaceful assembly, the right of association, the right to freedom of expression, the right to take part in the conduct of the public affairs of one s country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. 21 Human rights cannot be protected unless the 10

environment people live in is also protected, and that environmental rights can often be implemented properly only when human rights are respected. 22 The various declarations made at various conventions like Stockholm Declaration, the Draft Declaration, international NGOs like Earthrights International 23 etc. have clearly established the fact that environment and human rights are inextricably interlinked. The United Conference on Human Environment (UNCED), 1972 popularly known as Stockholm Conference made a direct link between the environment and right to life. The declaration of this conference in its preamble proclaims that both aspects of man s environment, the natural and man made are essential to his well-being and to the enjoyment of basic human rights, even the right to life itself. Principle 1 of the Draft Declaration, 1994 provides that Human rights, an ecologically sound environment, sustainable development and peace are interdependent and indivisible. The Preamble of the declaration also described the indivisibility of environment and human rights by stating that: - Human rights violations lead to environmental degradation and that environmental degradation leads to human rights violations. The principle-1 and preamble of the draft declaration make it clear that everything and anything that influences the environment directly influences the human conditions. Clean and healthy environment is pre requisite to live a good life by enjoying all forms of human rights because without a conducive environment, effective realization of human rights is not possible. The Earthrights International has very clearly explained the inextricable link between 11

environment and human rights by stating that - without a habitable environment, all other human rights become either unattainable or meaningless. 24 The inclusion of an environmental dimension in the human rights debate has become necessary in view of the recognition of the pervasive influence of local and global environmental conditions upon the realization of human rights. In legal terms, the new linkage will come to enhance the protection in both fields as the environment will benefit from the established machinery whereas the human rights system will be enhanced by the inclusion of new interpretative elements until recently ignored. 25 The right to environment creates an obligation upon States to refrain from activities harmful to the environment, and to adopt and enforce such policies and programmes for promoting conservation and improvement of environmental quality for battement of mankind. 1.3: Context of the Study: Devastating and hazardous floods is one of the adverse consequences of environmental degradation due to reckless exploitation of natural resources by men in an uncontrolled and unplanned manner. The ferocity of floods in recent times is unprecedented and so devastating that it brings a train of miseries year after year to the affected population. This in turn, christens many other problems: those of growing marginalisation and the resultant social unrest and poverty itself. The rights to life, right to livelihood, right to health, right to 12

education which are guaranteed through different instruments of human rights to ensure quality of human lives are badly affected by hazard of floods. Practically hazards of floods restricted the basic human rights of affected population in many ways and means. This trend threatens human welfare in flood prone areas, including long terms trend towards better nutrition, literacy, and reduced poverty. The Lakhimpur District of Assam, selected for the study is most vulnerable to flood hazard, which makes the human rights scenario in the region very deplorable.the National Flood Commission (Rashtriya Barh Ayog) has assessed nine districts including Lakhimpur District as flood-prone district of Assam in 2010. According to the assessment made by the committee headed by chairman, Ganga Flood Control Commission, Lakhimpur District, with other eight districts Dhubri, Morigaon, Dhemaji, Barpeta, Jorhat, Goalpara, Sivasagar and Nalbari in Assam are flood-prone districts in the north-eastern region. 26 The Government of India under UNDP s Disaster Risk Management Programme in 2002-2007 identified the Lakhimpur District as country s most hazard prone district among 125 districts. 27 Though flood is inherent in the district from past for its strategic geographical location at the foothill of Himalayan region crisscrossed by nineteen rivers emerged from the hills of Arunachal Pradesh but short sighted human activities and failure of government to fulfil its duties and obligations of protection and promotion of environment and human rights have been worsening the situation of floods in the district. The main justifications behind selection of the district for the study are: 13

The rivers flow from the hills of Arunachal Pradesh create flood havoc in the district almost every year and poses serious challenges to the life and livelihood of the people of the region. The district is located in India s most flood prone zones. No such study has been undertaken so far in the district. Out of nine Development Blocks of Lakhimpur District, the area under Telahi Development Block is selected to study the impacts of flood hazard on basic human rights of affected population. The choice of Telahi Development Block is primarily made due to the following reasons: Telahi Development Block is situated in a strategic geographical location surrounded by the river Brahmaputra and its two main tributaries Subansiri and Ranganadi. Of its total geographical area 68 percent area is flood prone. More than 72 percent of its population is flood affected. Telahi area is the inhabitancies of highest number of Schedule Tribes and Schedule Caste population in the district. Schedule Tribes comprises 60.68 percent and Schedule Caste 15 percent of its total population against 23.49 and 12.41 percent and 7.88 and 6.85 percent of the Schedule Tribes and Schedule Caste population of Lakhimpur and Assam respectively. Among flood affected population 72 percent belong to Schedule Tribes and Schedule Caste communities and they are subjected to economic deprivation, discrimination and inequality. 14

The adverse effects of flood hazard on all aspects of lives and livelihoods of the flood victims are diverse, many folds, and profound at individual, family and community levels. The situation created by devastating floods practically restricts human rights of affected population for year after year. The principal livelihoods of people living in rural flood plains are mainly farming. The occupational pattern of the people is heavily dependent on subsistence agriculture. 87 percent population of this is dependent on agriculture. 82 percent as cultivators and 5 percent as agriculture labourers (Source: Census Report, 2001). Besides cultivation, fishing and livestock rearing are the two other sources of livelihood. Flood causes immense destruction to crops and croplands, damaged household assets, livestock, wetlands, roads and communication systems, which practically paralyzed the socio economic life of the people. The objectives of the study are: To examine the nexus between environmental degradation vis-a- vis threats to the basic human rights in the study area. To highlight the role of the state in performing its constitutional obligations in protection and promotion of environment and human rights in the study area. To find out the strategies for protection and promotion of environment and human rights in the study area. The following hypotheses are taken up for the study: Devastating floods are the consequence of environmental degradation and is prime challenge of the basic human rights of the people living in the study area. 15

Failure of the state to fulfil its constitutional obligations leads to environmental degradation and human rights violations. 1.4: Significance of the Study: Human Rights are indivisible and as such there cannot be sufficient protection for Civil and Political Rights without equal protection for Socio-Economic rights. Environmental degradation is silent invader and it attacks on human rights either directly or indirectly. It is a major threat not only for present human society but is a cause of concern for future generations. Gus Speth, the former Chairman of the Council of Environmental Quality (America) has rightly warned that due to our limited knowledge of the earth working, we should not experiment with its great system in a way that imposes unknown potentially large risks on future generations. 28 To maintain the dignity of individuals it is not sufficient to provide some constitutional remedies of fundamental rights if violated unless they are free from economic wants and misery. The developmental imperatives pursued so far fails to protect the interest of the rural poor dependent on natural resources for their sustenance. Therefore for empowerment of rural poor it is utmost necessary to emphasize on the protection of their immediate livelihood. The state is to shape its social and economic policies in such a way that people have the right to an adequate means of livelihood. Studies of impact of floods on environment and human rights 16

become a field of attraction because it may help sustainability of human beings on earth and to live a life with human dignity in the society. The study has its significance in many respects. Besides its academic importance the analysis of the impacts of floods on basic human rights of people particularly of marginalized communities will help the planners, policy makers and politicians to formulate a comprehensive plan for protection of both environment and human rights to secure socio-economic justice of those people who are vulnerable to flood hazards. The study therefore is an attempt to examine environmental issues through human rights perspective by focusing on Lakhimpur District of Assam. 1.5: Methodology The methodology of the present study is both theoretical and empirical. Data for the study are collected from primary and secondary sources. The primary data are collected from field survey with the help of schedule and from documents, reports of government departments, published research papers, articles, and reports. In addition to this, interviews were also conducted with relevant persons. The schedule was designed on the basis of the pilot survey conducted in the study area. The schedule covers selected parameters like family size, location of the village, basic amenities available in the village, occupation of the respondent, impacts of floods on life, livelihood, health and education of the respondents, role of the government, and non governmental organizations in protection and 17

promotion of human rights challenged by the environmental degradation in the study area. Two hundred five sample sizes were selected for the study scattered in the twelve revenue villages. The revenue villages (sampled villages) were selected from seventy seven floods affected revenue villages situated under jurisdiction area of Telahi Development Block of Lakhimpur District of Assam. Both respondents and sampled villages were selected by using stratified random sampling technique. The secondary data are collected from available journals, magazines, and books published by international, national and regional publications, agencies, and organisations. Besides internet resources have accessed extensively. The data are mainly qualitative information aimed to understand the influence of flood devastation on the basic human rights in the study area. The collected data were tabulated and analyzed and given graphical presentations. 1.6: Organisation of the Study: The study is divided into five chapters Chapter one is introductory in nature where in the statement of the problem it discusses very briefly how environmental and human rights are inextricably related and degraded environment contribute directly to infringements of the basic human rights particularly of poor people. Besides the chapter provides the theoretical foundation on the basis of which the research work has been carried out. It also gives the context, objectives, hypothesis and significances of the 18

study. The methodology which has been followed while carrying out the research work is also states here. Chapter two deals with the conceptual framework of environmental degradation and human rights. Further, in this chapter an attempt has been made to discuss about the driving forces responsible for degradation of environmental quality, and the challenges poses by environmental degradation to human rights in international, national and regional perspectives. This chapter also states how the hazard of flood is in increasing trend of devastation mainly as a consequence of environmental degradation in international, national, regional and local perspectives. It throw light on the human rights approach of environmental protection and traces the endeavours taken by the international community and Indian constitution for protection of environment to secure human rights. Chapter third is devoted to explain a brief description of the study area which includes geographical location, demography and other characteristics like forest cover, river system, occupational pattern, health infrastructures. Here an attempt has been made to discuss three selected driving forces of environmental degradation viz. population growth, decline of forest cover and impacts of illdesigned developmental imperatives which are mainly responsible for degradation of river ecosystem and flood hazard in the study area. Chapter four throws light on socio economic background of study area and respondents. Further it explains how degradation of environmental quality leads 19

to flood hazard and poses serious challenges to basic human rights in the study area vis- a - vis the data collected from field study. Chapter five is a conclusion which offers concluding remarks of the study and summates the key findings and suggestions which may have policy relevance in future. Further it also gives an opening to the vistas of research in this area by research scholars in future in addition to knowledge. References 1 Nepali M., Environmental Degradation and Right to Life, a Human Rights Perspective, Global Village 2010, available at www.grounreport.com Global_ Village. 2 Smith R.L., 1972, quoted by Hussain Z., in Environmental Degradation and Conservation in North East India, Omsons Publication, New Delhi 1996, p. 6. 3 Singh S., Environmental Geography, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad 2008, p. 438. 4 Islam S., Human Dignity and Human Rights (an appraisal in the viewpoint of present- Indian Islam), Department of Philosophy & Religion,Visva Bharati University, Santiniketan, India. 5 Environmental Degradation and Social Integration, UNRISD Briefing Paper No. 3 World Summit For Social Development, November 1994. 6 The United Nations Conference on Climate Change also known as COP 15 was held at Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark on December 7-19, 2009. 7 RADTANCE Views Weekly, issue 26th October-1st November, 2008. 8 Down To Earth, June 15, 2004, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi. 20

9 10 11 12 13 14 Study conducted by the UK Meteorological Office, the figure of which was released at the UN climate talks in Copenhagen(2009), Pratiyogita Darpan, February 2010, p.76 Disaster Management in India- A Status Report-2004, Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, National Disaster Management Division. Commoner B., cited in Sharma A. Environmental Studies, Surjeet Publication, Delhi 2005, p. 29. Bhalla G.S. et al., Environmental Education, Regal Publications, New Delhi 2007, p.xiii. Edward G. S. cited in AD Mishra (ed), Challenges of 21 st Century, Mittal Publication, New Delhi 2004, p. 211. Halifax Declaration, available at www.iisd.org/educate/declarat/halifax.htm 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Anderson M.R., Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection: An Overview in Boyle A & Anderson M. R. (eds) Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection, Clareendon Press, Oxford 1996, p. 3 Judge W., of International Court of Justice in case concerning the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project 1997 ICJ Rep. 7,4. Rene Samuel Cassin the Nobel Peace Prize Owner in 1968, in his Hague Academy lectures 1974. Paul G., quoted in Picolloti R., and Taillant J.D.(eds), Linking Human Rights and the Environment, University of Arizona Press 2003, pp. 41,42. Yves Lador in his presentation The concept of environmental rights in law and practice in Roundtable on Human Rights and the Environment Organized by Geneva Environment Network (GEN) March 2004. Stefano S., Human rights and environment: the perspective of the human rights bodies, in Franz Xaver Perrez, Key question concerning the human rights and environment debate an introduction, available at www.environment house.ch/doespublications/ Human%20 Rights% HumanRights and the Environment: Preliminary Report Prepared by Mrs. Fatma Zohra Ksentini, Special Rapporteur, Pursuant to Sub-Commission Resolutions 1990/7 and 1990/27, U.N. Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, 43d Sess., Provisional Agenda Item 4, at 3, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1991/8 (1991). 22 Razzaque J., Human Rights and the Environment: the national experience in South Asia and Africa, in Joint UNEP-OHCHR Expert Seminar on Human Rights and the Environment,14-16 January 2002, Geneva: Background Paper Number 4, p. 7 21

23 24 25 26 27 28 Earthrights International founded in 1995, is a non-profit organization with offices in Washington,D.C. and Chaing Mai, Thailand. Http://www.earthrights.org/about_us.html Earthrights International, in Human Rights and Environment, paper presented to the Center for Human Rights UN office, Geneva, January 1997. Philippe Cullet, Definition of an Environmental Rights in a Human Rights Context, International Environmental Law Centre, Published in: 13 Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights-1995, p. 25 The Assam Tribune, dated 3 rd December 2010, Guwahati, Assam Disaster Risk Management Programme (2002-2007),Series-2, Community Based Disaster Reduction and Recovery, Through Participation of Communities and Local Self Government, NDMD, Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt. of India, Annexure IA Cited by Singh P.N. in Environment and Economic Development, Manak Publishers, Delhi 2000, p. 77. 22