Police Process Outline for the lecture The creation and history of American police Dae-Hoon Kwak Michigan State University CJ 335 Summer 2006 Lecture 2 American Police History Three Era s/models in Police History: 1) Political Era (1600 1900) 2) Professional/Traditional Era (late 1900 late 1970) 3) CP (or COP)/POP (1980 present) Comprehend the important changes that have occurred in policing Explain both the failures and successes of reforms in policing 1 2 The Relevance of History The English Heritage Knowledge of the development of policing contributes to our understanding of contemporary practices and problems. Police organization, reforms, and police-community relations (PCR) today are deeply rooted in the past. A Product of English Heritage - The English colonists brought a CJ system as part of their cultural baggage. Three Enduring Features The study of police history can: - Limited police authority (e.g., the Bill of Rights) - Dramatize the fact of change - Put current problems into perspective - Help us understand what reforms have worked - Alerts us to the unintended consequence of reform - Local control of law enforcement agencies - Highly decentralized and fragmented system of Law Enforcement 3 4 The English Heritage (cont.) The English Heritage (cont.) Creation of the Modern Police Creation of the Modern Police (cont.) - Sir Robert Peel, the FATHER of modern policing - The essential features of the Modern Police (Bayley) - Established London Metropolitan Police (1829) - Reflected vision of efficient proactive police force - Key elements a. Mission: crime prevention (deterrence) b. Strategy: preventive patrol (of fixed beats) c. Org. Structure: quasi-military a. Public: responsible for public safety b. Specialized: mission of law enforcement and crime prevention c. Professional: full-time, paid employees Two primary features of the English Heritage provided to American Policing: a. Local control not federal or State (vs. S. Korea) b. Decentralized/Fragmented System 18,000 PDs 5 6 1
Example: MSU Police Dept. Vision and Mission Statement - Vision Slogan: Committed to courtesy and excellence - Mission Statement: The department will provide for a safe, welcome, and orderly campus environment for MSU students, faculty, staff, and visitors; and will provide an ethical, people-oriented work environment where our members may enjoy their jobs, utilize their talents, respect one another and grow as individuals. Example: MSU Police Dept. (cont.) Vision and Mission Statement (cont.) - MSU Police 5 Big Problems a. Police-minority trust b. Technology c. Parking services d. Improving police-student relations e. Internal employee issues - Focus: CP, Courtesy & Excellence, Quality Leadership, Caring Customer Service, and A People Oriented Work Place. 7 8 Law Enforcement in Colonial America Law Enforcement in Colonial America (cont.) Law Enforcement Institutions Law Enforcement Institutions (cont.) - Sheriff (the chief local government official) appointed by colonial governor. a. Law enforcement b. Collect taxes c. Conduct elections d. Maintain bridges and roads - Watch : similar to the modern-day police a. Patrolled to guard against Fire, Crime, Disorder b. Originally, only night watch (later, day watch) c. All males were expected to serve - Slave Patrol : A distinctly American form of LE - Constable (originally elected, later appointed) a. Some responsibility for enforcing law and maintaining order a. Guard against slave revolts and capture runaway slaves. b. The first modern police forces in U.S. 9 10 Characteristics of Colonial Law Enforcement Three Era s/models in Police History Inefficient, corrupt, and subject to political interference (no service function) Crime Control - Little capacity to prevent crime or apprehend offenders - Reactive: did not engage in preventative patrol - Lack of personnel to investigate crime - No convenient way to report crime - Lack of communication among watch members 1) Political Era (1600 1900) - E.g., 1830 1900 (Walker & Katz) 1840 1930 (Kelling & Moore) 2) Professional/Traditional Era (late 1900 late 1970) 3) CP (or COP)/POP (1980 present) Order maintenance - Ill-equipped due to lack of personnel - Citizens could not readily report disturbances - Sheriff nor constable could respond effectively 11 12 2
The First Modern American Police The First Modern American Police (cont.) Modern forces established in 1830s and 1840s - In 1838, Boston PD 9 P.O.s (NY created force in 1845) - Older system broken down due to urbanization, industrialization, and immigration (e.g., riots between ethnic groups) - Delays in creation of police forces due to memories of hated British, fear of political control, and lack of preparation to pay for public police force - Riots began to break out quite regularly in 1830s (e.g., Boston, NY, Philly) - First P.O.s did not carry firearms until late 1800s in respond to rising violence in cities - Just like the London model of modern policing - Main differences in US compared England. a. U.S. more democratic than Britain: citizens had direct control of government b. London: restraint (e.g., physical force), high personnel standards, and strict supervision = Respect c. U.S.: Lack of restraint, no personnel standards, and lack of supervision = Disrespect 13 14 American Policing (1834-1900) American Policing (1834-1900) (cont.) Personnel The failure of police reform - Non-existent standards: officers selected on political connections (e.g., patronage system) Patrol work: was inefficient - Reformers made police corruption a major issue in 19 th Cen. a. Concentrated on changing structural control of PDs. b. struggle for control reflected divisions along political parties, ethnic groups - Foot patrol: large beats, and little coverage - Lack of communication: difficult for citizens to contact police - Poor supervision Corruption and politics - Police received payoffs for not enforcing the law - Had to pay to get promoted - Never-ending battle began for who should control PD - Reasons for failure a. Lacked substantive ideas about police administration b. Made no significant changes in standards, training or supervision c. No attention given to excessive force or race discrimination 15 16 The Origins of Police Professionalism (1900-30) The Origins of Police Professionalism (cont.) The Professional Movement The impact of professionalism - August Vollmer: Police chief in Berkely, CA a. Advocated higher education for police officers b. Wrote Wickersham Commission (1931) Report on Police Elements of the Movement - Define policing as a profession - Eliminate political influence from policing - Appoint qualified leaders - Increase personnel standards training, education - Introduce principles of scientific management - Develop specialized units - Centralize command (control) - Reform progressed very slowly mostly failed - Some successes: established the idea of prof. as the goal for modern policing, and increased military ethos of PDs. Problems of prof. - Police subculture: left out patrol officers (forgotten in the movement: isolation), instead choosing to focus on management and leadership. - This lead to the beginnings of Unionizing (i.e., police union) E.g., Boston Police Strike (1919) destroyed police unionism for next twenty years 17 18 3
The Origins of Police Professionalism (cont.) Police and Racial Minorities - Conflict between police and African-American community - Major race riots in St. Louis, Chicago and other cities - African-American officers: few hired, assigned to A-A community, and not allowed to arrest whites. - Conflict did not receive serious attention until 1960s New law enforcement agencies - State police: traffic control (i.e. highway patrols), and general LE agencies (e.g., Texas Rangers (1835)). - Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI, 1908), founded by Roosevelt. First full-time federal criminal investigation agency. The New Communications Technology Patrol cars(1920s) - Thought to provide efficient patrol coverage and deter crime - Quick response - By 60 s not many foot patrols left -But, reduced police-citizen contact 2-way radio (late 1930s) & Telephone - Allowed depts. to dispatch officers in response to citizen calls - Provide a better supervision (easily contact with officers) -Results of calling the cops increased workload more officers, patrol cars, and communication systems. 19 20 New Directions in Police Administration (1930-60) New Directions in Police Administration (cont.) The Wickersham Commission Report J. Edgar Hoover: the war on crime - First national study of the American CJ system - Findings: the practice of the third degree was used to gain confessions, and police routinely used an excessive force Professionalism continues - August Vollmer: established the first undergraduate program in San Jose(1931). (cf. UC Berkley(1933), and MSU (1935)) - O.W. Wilson: wrote two influential books on police management a. Developed workload formula for patrol officer assignment b. Emphasis on efficiency was the major influence in the basic shift of American policing from foot patrol to automobile patrol - Increased size and scope of FBI - Won control of UCR - Acquired increased federal jurisdiction - Opened the National Policy Academy - Emphasis on education and training - Impact on local police to emphasize crime fighting and reform - Exaggerated professionalism of the FBI 21 22 The Police Crisis of the 1960s The cops and the Supreme Court - Mapp v. Ohio (1961): evidence gathered in an illegal search and seizure could not be used against the defendant - Miranda v. Arizona (1966): police required to advise suspects of their rights before interrogating a. the right to remain silent b. anything they said could be used against them c. the right to an attorney d. if they could not afford, one would be appointed The Police Crisis of the 1960s (cont.) The cops and civil rights - Civil rights movement 1960s a. Race discrimination b. A-A were unrepresented as P.O.s c. Shot and killed A-As about 8 times as often as whites In response, establishment of PCR units, increase A-A officers, and demand creation of citizen review boards. 23 24 4
The Police Crisis of the 1960s (cont.) The Police in the national spotlight - ABF study found that officers exercised broad discretion, and most police work involved non-criminal activity - President s Commission on LE and Admin.of Justice a. Endorsed agenda of professionalism b. Sponsored pioneering research - Kerner Commission: National Advisory Com. on Civil Disorders a. Found deep hostility between police and ghetto community hire more A-A officers, improve procedures for handling citizen complaints b. Raised questions about professionalism: many disturbances took place in cities where police were the most professional, best trained, best lead, etc. New Developments in Policing (1970-2000) The changing police officer - Increased racial and ethnic minority representation - Increased female representation - Better educated (e.g. about 40% of P.O.s has Bachelor degree or higher) - Training improvements The control of police discretion: written policies governing police work (e.g., force continuum) Police Unions: salary and benefits improvements, protection of officer s rights, and reduced power of police chiefs Citizen oversight of police: by 2000, over 100 citizen oversight procedures in the U.S. 25 26 New Developments in Policing (cont.) Race and ethnic conflict continues - Reemerge in late 1990s (e.g., Rodney King, 1991) - Racial profiling(driving while black): civil rights leader charge that police stop A-As solely on the basis on their race e.g., Ly (2001) found that A.As were much more likely to receive oral and written warnings, and three times more likely to be asked if their vehicle could be searched. 27 5