Figure 1.1 U.S. Family Income Growth Growth 140% 120% 100% 80% 60% 115.3% 1947 to 1973 97.1% 97.7% 102.9% 84.0% 40% 20% 0% Lowest Fifth Second Fifth Middle Fifth Fourth Fifth Top Fifth 70% 60% 1973 to 2000 61.6% 50% Growth 40% 30% 24.1% 33.6% 20% 10% 10.3% 15.5% 0% Lowest Fifth Second Fifth Middle Fifth Fourth Fifth Top Fifth Source: Reprinted from Mishel, Bernstein, and Boushey (2003, 57), based on U.S. census data. Copyright 2003 by Cornell University. Used by permission of the publisher, Cornell University Press.
Figure 1.2 Top 0.1 Percent Income Shares 12 11 United States France United Kingdom 10 Share (in Percentages) 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1913 1918 1923 1928 1933 1938 1943 1948 1953 1958 1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 Year Source: Piketty and Saez (2003), based on analysis of tax returns. 2003 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Table 1.1 Distribution of Income and Wealth, 1998 Household Income (Percentage) Net Worth (Percentage) All 100.0 100.0 Top 1 percent 16.0 38.1 Bottom 90 percent 58.5 29.0 Source: Reprinted from Mishel, Bernstein, and Boushey (2003, 279), based on Federal Reserve Board Survey of Consumer Finances. Copyright 2003 by Cornell University. Used by permission of the publisher, Cornell University Press. Note: Net worth is the sum of all of a family s assets checking and savings accounts, property ownership, stock holdings, retirement funds and other assets minus all of the family s liabilities debt owed for credit cards and loans for college, property, and other purchases.
Figure 2.1 Percentage Active in Various Activities: High and Low Income Groups Voting Campaign Work Campaign Contributions Under $15,000 a $75,000 and over b Contact Protest Informal Community Activity Board Membership Affiliated with Political Organization 0 20 40 60 80 Percentage Active Source: Verba, Schlozman, and Brady (1995, 190). Reprinted by permission of the publisher from Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics by Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman, and Henry E. Brady, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Copyright 1995 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. a N = 483 weighted cases b N = 224 weighted cases
Figure 2.2 Political Activities by Gender Voted 71% 74% Campaign Work 8% 9% Women Men Campaign Contributions 20% 27% Contact 30% 38% Protest 6% 6% Informal Community Activity 16% 19% Board Membership 3% 4% Affiliated with Political Organization 44% 53% 0 20 40 60 80 Percentage Active Source: Verba, Schlozman, and Brady (1995, 255). Reprinted by permission of the publisher from Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics by Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman, and Henry E. Brady, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Copyright 1995 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College.
Figure 2.3 Overall Political Activity by Race or Ethnicity Non-Hispanic White Men Non-Hispanic White Women Black Men Black Women 2.08 1.94 1.86 2.36 Hispanic Men Hispanic Women 1.61 0.90 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Mean Number of Political Activities Non-Hispanic White Men Non-Hispanic White Women $51 $95 Black Men Black Women $41 $37 Hispanic Men $41 Hispanic Women $18 $0 $20 $40 $60 $80 $100 Mean Number of Dollars Source: Burns, Schlozman, and Verba (2001, 278). Reprinted by permission of the publisher from The Private Roots of Public Action, by Nancy E. Burns, Kay Lehman Schlozman, and Sidney Verba, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Copyright 2001 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College.
Figure 2.4 Mean Number of Political Acts by Age 3 2.5 2.17 2.54 2.52 2.35 Political Acts 2 1.5 1 1.26 1.68 1.82 0.5 0 18 24 25 29 30 39 40 49 50 59 60 69 70+ Age Source: Schlozman et al. (2001).
Figure 2.5 Has the Class Stratification of Political Activity Changed? A. Political Activities, by SES Quintile Mean Number of Activities 3 5 Top Quintile 2 4 1 3 2 1 0 1973 1975 1977 1979 Bottom Quintile 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 B. Political Activities Ratio, Top Fifth to Bottom Fifth 8 7 Ratio 6 5 4 3 2 1 Equality Line 0 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 Source: Roper Social and Political Trends Data, 1973 1994 as reported in Brady et al. (2002, 227, 299).
Figure 2.6 Turnout in American Elections Percentage 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 Year Presidential Midterm Source: Hershey and Beck (2003, 143). Fig. 8.1, p. 143 Turnout in American Elections from Party Politics in America, 11th ed. by Marjorie Randon Hershey. Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Reprinted by permission. Note: These are votes for president and for the office with the highest vote in midterm elections. 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Table 2.1 Voter Registration and Turnout Percentage Reporting They Registered Percentage Reporting They Voted 1998 2000 1998 2000 Education Eight years or less 40.2% 36.1% 24.6% 26.8% High school One to three years 43.4 45.9 25.0 33.6 Four years 58.6 60.1 37.1 49.4 College One to three years 68.3 70.0 46.2 60.3 Four years or more 75.1 77.3 57.2 72.0 Race White 63.9 65.6 43.3 56.4 Black 60.2 63.6 39.6 53.5 Hispanic 33.7 34.9 20.0 27.5 Sex Male 60.6 62.2 41.4 53.1 Female 63.5 65.6 42.4 56.2 Age Eighteen to twenty years old 32.1 40.5 13.5 28.4 Twenty-one to twenty-four years old 43.1 49.3 19.2 24.2 Twenty-five to thirty-four years old 52.4 54.7 28.0 43.7 Thirty-five to forty-four years old 62.4 63.8 40.7 55.0 Forty-five to sixty-four years old 71.1 71.2 53.6 64.1 Sixty-five years old and over 75.4 76.1 59.5 67.6 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract.
Table 2.2 Political Activities by Race and Ethnicity Non-Hispanic African Hispanic Activity Whites Americans Hispanics Citizens Vote 73% 65% 41% 52% Campaign work 8 12 7 8 Campaign contributions 25 22 11 12 Contact 37 24 14 17 Protest 5 9 4 4 Informal community activity 17 19 12 14 Board member 4 2 4 5 Affiliated with a political organization 52 38 24 27 Source: Verba, Schlozman, and Brady (1995, 233). Reprinted by permission of the publisher from Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics by Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman, and Henry E. Brady, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, Copyright 1995 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College.
Table 2.3 Characteristics of Significant Presidential Donors 1972 1988 2000 Education High school or less 9% 6% 2% Some college 16 15 14 College degree 24 22 28 Some graduate 16 11 11 Graduate or professional 36 45 46 101% 99% 101% Income Under $30,000 22% $30,000 to $49,999 22 $50,000 to $99,999 31 $100,000 and up 26 101% Under $50,000 18% $51,000 to $99,999 22 $100,000 to $250,000 30 Over $250,000 31 101% Under $100,000 14% $100,000 to $249,999 42 $250,000 to $500,000 21 Over $500,000 23 100% Race White 99% 95% 96% African American 1 2 2 Hispanic na 2 Asian 1 1 Other 1 1 100% 99% 102% Sex Male 83% 73% 70% Female 17 27 30 100% 100% 100% Age Eighteen to thirty 7% 5% 1% Thirty-one to forty-five 24 30 17 Forty-six to sixty 48 35 43 Sixty-one or older 21 30 40 100% 100% 101% Source: Wilcox (2003).
Table 2.4 Party Mobilization for Political Activity: Who is Asked? All Respondents $40,300 Average Family Income Republican Democratic Party identifiers $45,400 $36,900 Regular voters $48,000 $38,500 Those asked to work in a campaign by a fellow partisan $51,700 $49,800 Those asked to contribute to a campaign by a fellow partisan $56,700 $54,700 Source: Citizen Participation Study.
Figure 3.1 Average Ideological Distance in the House 1.2 1 Chamber Democrats Republicans Distances 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1879 1885 1891 1897 1903 1909 1915 1921 1927 1933 1939 Year Source: McCarty, Poole, and Rosenthal (forthcoming). 1945 1951 1957 1963 1969 1975 1981 1987 1993 Figure 3.2 Average Ideological Distance in the Senate 1.2 1 Chamber Democrats Republicans Distances 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1879 1885 1891 1897 1903 1909 1915 1921 1927 1933 1939 Year Source: McCarty, Poole, and Rosenthal (forthcoming). 1945 1951 1957 1963 1969 1975 1981 1987 1993
Figure 3.3 Income Inequality and Political Polorization 0.95 0.90 Gini 0.44 Polarization Index 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 r=.94 House Polarization Index 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.34 Gini Index 0.55 1947 1949 1951 1953 1955 1957 1959 1961 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 0.32 Year Source: McCarty, Poole, and Rosenthal (forthcoming). Note: Polarization, Computation of Average DW-NOMINATE distance between Republicans and Democrats by authors. There is one data point for each two-year Congress. The Gini index value is for the first year of the Congress. For example, the first data point is polarization for the 80th House, 1947 49 and the Gini value for 1947.
Figure 3.4 Influences on Foreign Policy Preferences of All Government Officials Unstandardized OLS Regression Coefficients 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 0.44 0.24 0.16 Business Leaders Experts Labor Leaders Public Opinion Source: Jacobs and Page (2005, table 2). Note: The dependent variable is the percentage of government officials who took a given position; the independent variables are the percentages of members of each of the listed groups who took that position. The coefficient for public opinion was not significantly different from zero at the p <.10 level. The remaining coefficients are significant at the p <.01 level. The analysis controlled for the previous positions of government officials (not shown). See article for more details.
Figure 3.5 Congressional Responsiveness to Income Classes (Senate W-NOMINATE Scores, 1989 1994) 5 Estimated Probit Coefficients 4 3 2 1 101st Congress 102nd Congress 103rd Congress 0 1 Bottom Third Middle Third Top Third Source: Bartels (2005).
Figure 4.1 After-Tax Public and Private Social Welfare Expenditures in Eleven Nations, 1995 Percentage of GDP 30 25 20 15 10 3 18.7 3.5 17.7 0.8 23.6 0.8 25.1 1.8 25.9 1.5 17.3 1.4 20.9 3.8 21.2 1.6 25.4 3.9 22.1 8.3 16.2 5 0 Australia Canada Publicly Regulated and Subsidized Private Spending Denmark Finland Germany Ireland Public Spending, Including Tax Expenditures Italy Netherlands Sweden United Kingdom United States Source: Jacob S. Hacker (2002) calculated from Adema (1999). Notes: Public social welfare expenditures exclude education. They include cash benefits for a wide range of social contingencies disability, old age, death of a spouse, occupational injuries, disease, sickness, childbirth, unemployment, poverty as well as spending on housing, health care, services for the elderly and disabled, active labor-market policies, and other similar social benefits. Private social welfare expenditures are payments for the same purposes made by employers and other nongovernmental organizations, provided that such benefits are mandated, subsidized, or regulated by government. To prevent double-counting, tax breaks for private benefits are not included in the public spending estimate.
Table 4.1 Income Inequality Private Income Inequality (Gini Index; Higher Income Inequality Percentage Reduction Numbers Indicate After Taxes and in Inequality Country Greater Transfers Due to Taxes and Year Inequality) (Gini Index) and Transfers Australia 1981 0.396 0.281 29% 1985 0.417 0.292 30 1989 0.428 0.304 29 1994 0.452 0.311 31 Mean 0.423 0.297 30 Belgium 1992 0.449 0.224 50 1996 0.483 0.260 46 1997 0.481 0.260 46 Mean 0.471 0.248 48 Canada 1981 0.370 0.284 23 1987 0.387 0.283 27 1991 0.405 0.281 31 1994 0.419 0.285 32 1997 0.417 0.291 30 1998 0.429 0.305 29 2000 0.413 0.302 27 Mean 0.406 0.290 28 Denmark 1987 0.398 0.254 36 1992 0.426 0.236 45 1995 0.441 0.263 40 1997 0.432 0.257 41 Mean 0.424 0.253 40 Finland 1987 0.393 0.209 47 1991 0.407 0.210 48 1995 0.438 0.226 48 2000 0.430 0.247 43 Mean 0.417 0.223 47
Table 4.1 Continued Private Income Inequality (Gini Index; Higher Income Inequality Percentage Reduction Numbers Indicate After Taxes and in Inequality Country Greater Transfers Due to Taxes and Year Inequality) (Gini Index) and Transfers France 1981 0.370 0.288 22% 1984 0.469 0.298 37 1989 0.474 0.287 40 1994 0.485 0.288 41 Mean 0.450 0.290 35 Germany 1981 0.388 0.244 37 1983 0.385 0.260 33 1984 0.445 0.249 44 1989 0.405 0.247 39 1994 0.442 0.261 41 2000 0.459 0.264 43 Mean 0.421 0.254 39 Italy 1986 0.424 0.306 28 1991 0.407 0.289 29 1995 0.468 0.342 27 Mean 0.433 0.312 28 Netherlands 1983 0.470 0.260 45 1987 0.475 0.256 46 1991 0.448 0.266 41 1994 0.459 0.253 45 1999 0.440 0.248 44 Mean 0.458 0.257 44 Norway 1986 0.352 0.233 34 1991 0.374 0.231 38 1995 0.400 0.238 41 2000 0.406 0.251 38 Mean 0.383 0.238 38 (Table continues on p. 162.)
Table 4.1 Continued Private Income Inequality (Gini Index; Higher Income Inequality Percentage Reduction Numbers Indicate After Taxes and in Inequality Country Greater Transfers Due to Taxes and Year Inequality) (Gini Index) and Transfers Sweden 1981 0.411 0.197 52% 1987 0.428 0.218 49 1992 0.461 0.229 50 1995 0.459 0.221 52 2000 0.447 0.252 44 Mean 0.441 0.223 49 Switzerland 1982 0.382 0.309 19 1992 0.376 0.307 18 Mean 0.379 0.308 19 United Kingdom 1986 0.476 0.303 36 1991 0.476 0.336 29 1994 0.502 0.339 33 1995 0.503 0.344 32 1999 0.500 0.345 31 Mean 0.491 0.333 32 United States 1986 0.432 0.335 23 1991 0.440 0.336 24 1994 0.465 0.355 24 1997 0.475 0.372 22 2000 0.469 0.368 22 Mean 0.456 0.353 23 Source: Luxembourg Income Study, courtesy of Vincent Mahler, Timothy Smeeding, and David Jesuit. Notes: Private income encompasses all reported non-governmental sources of income, including alimony and child support. These figures are for all households (after adjustment for household size), including households headed by persons older than sixty-five. The small number of households without any reported disposable income are excluded, on the assumption that their income is not accurately reported.