Development Strategies, Identities, and Conflict in Asia

Development Strategies, Identities, and Conflict in Asia

POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND INCLUSIVE DEVELOPMENT Series Editors William Ascher, Claremont McKenna College John M. Heffron, Soka University of America Natalia Mirovitskaya, Duke University The Politics, Economics, and Inclusive Development series examines the challenges and progress in promoting humanistic development. The complex tasks of simultaneously pursuing economic growth, broad participation and equity, democratic peace, and sustainability require scholarship that merges in-depth analysis of the many factors that influence development outcomes with contextually rich experiences. The single- or multiauthored monographs use an interdisciplinary methodology to explore diverse experiences of individual nations, world regions, or the entire global system in their quest for more democratic, technically sound, and sustainable development. The publications from the Politics, Economics, and Inclusive Development series will be valuable to students, scholars, policymakers, and international development practitioners. Economic Development Strategies and the Evolution of Violence in Latin America Edited by William Ascher and Natalia Mirovitskaya Development Strategies, Identities, and Confl ict in Asia Edited by William Ascher and Natalia Mirovitskaya

Development Strategies, Identities, and Conflict in Asia E d it e d by Wil l ia m A sche r an d Nata l ia Mir ovit skaya Prepared under the auspices of the Pacific Basin Research Center. Soka University of America

ISBN 978-1-349-46144-8 DOI 10.1057/9781137331762 ISBN 978-1-137-33176-2 (ebook) DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES, IDENTITIES, AND CONFLICT IN ASIA Copyright William Ascher and Natalia Mirovitskaya, 2013. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2013 978-1-137-33175-5 All rights reserved. First published in 2013 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN in the United States a division of St. Martin s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave and Macmillan are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN: 978 1 137 33175 5 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Development strategies, identities, and conflict in Asia / edited by William Ascher and Natalia S. Mirovitskaya. pages cm. (Politics, economics, and inclusive development) Prepared under the auspices of the Pacific Basin Research Center, Soka University of America. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978 1 137 33175 5 (hardback) 1. Asia Economic policy. 2. Economic development Asia. 3. Violence Economic aspects Asia. 4. Ethnic conflict Economic aspects Asia. 5. Social conflict Economic aspects Asia. I. Ascher, William, editor of compilation. II. Mirovitskaia, N. S. (Nataliia Sergeevna), editor of compilation. HC412.D475 2013 338.95 dc23 2012049570 A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library. Design by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India. First edition: June 2013 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

To the memory of Sheila Ascher Glassman, mother, and compassionate teacher of thousands of needy students WA With gratitude to Gail Osherenko and Oran Young, who in the winter of 1989 came to my office in Moscow and changed my world NM

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Contents List of Illustrations Preface and Acknowledgments Li s t of C on t r ib u t o r s ix xi xiii Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 War, Peace, and Many Shades in Between: Asia in the New Millennium 1 William Ascher and Natalia Mirovitskaya The Nexus of Economic Strategies and Intergroup C on f l ic t i n A si a 47 William Ascher and Natalia Mirovitskaya Tribal Participation in India s Maoist Insurgency: Examining the Role of Economic Development Policies 99 Sumit Ganguly and Jennifer Oetken Intrastate Conflicts and Development Strategies: The Baloch Insurgency in Pakistan 125 G. Shabbir Cheema Development Strategies, Religious Relations, and Communal Violence in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia: A Cautionary Tale 153 Lorraine V. Aragon Exploring the Relationship between Development and Conflict: The Malaysian Experience 183 Ananthi Al Ramiah and Thillainathan Ramasamy

viii Contents Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Official Development Assistance (ODA) and Conflict: A Case Study on Japanese ODA to Vietnam 209 Edward M. Feasel Socioeconomic Change, Intraethnic Competition, and Political Salience of Ethnic Identities: The Cases of Turkey and Uzbekistan 241 Ebru Erdem-Akcay Local versus Transcendent Insurgencies: Why Economic Aid Helps Lower Violence in Dagestan, but not in Kabardino-Balkaria 277 Mikhail Alexseev The Conflict-Development Nexus in Asia: Policy A ppro a c he s 315 William Ascher and Natalia Mirovitskaya Index 321

Illustrations Figures 7.1 Official Development Assistance to Vietnam, 1990 2010 214 7.2 ODA to Vietnam for Economic Infrastructure, 2002 2009 217 7.3 Japanese ODA for Economic Infrastructure as a Percent of Vietnam s State Capital Expenditure, 2002 2009 218 7.4 Internal Conflict-Cooperation Scale for Vietnam, 1990 2004 220 9.1 Insurgency and Federal Developmental Aid by County and City in Dagestan 296 9.2 Insurgency and Federal Developmental Aid by County and City in Kabardino-Balkaria 296 9.3 Insurgency and Local Government Spending on Education in Dagestan 297 9.4 Insurgency and Local Government Spending on Culture, Kabardino-Balkaria 298 Tables 1.1 Violence Rates in Asia, 2002, 2004, 2008 5 2.1 Economic Liberalization Levels and Trends 51 2.2 Economic Growth Rates and Per Capita Gross Domestic Product in Asia, 1991 to 2011 69 2.3 Education and Health Expenditures and Indicators 75 3.1 Most Severely Affected States by Maoist Violence 104 3.2 Fatalities in Chhattisgarh s Maoist Conflict 113 4.1 Evolution of the Baloch Insurgency: Year and Key Events 135 4.2 Balochistan Terror Attacks 2007 136 4.3 Ideologies and Representation of Political Parties in National and Provincial Assemblies 138

x Illustrations 4.4 Provincial Share of National Finance Commission Awards 140 4.5 NFC Award at a Glance: Vertical Distribution of Divisible Pool 147 6.1 Share that Agriculture, Industry, and Services Contributed to Malaysia s Total Employment between 1957 and 2005 197 6.2 Proportion of People from Each Ethnic Group with Secondary and Tertiary Educational Qualifications between 1967/1968 and 2004 197 6.3 Percentage of Bumiputera Living in Urban Areas and Employed in Various Occupations Post-independence 198 7.1 Vietnam Poverty Rates, 1993 2010 212 9.1 Federal Aid in Budget Revenues of the North Caucasus Republics (million rubles) 280

Preface and Acknowledgments This is the second volume to come out of our multicountry research project on Economic Development Strategies to Avert Collective Violence, begun in 2009 under the auspices of the Pacific Basin Research Center of Soka University of America. The goal of the project is to determine which development strategies and specific policies create conditions that reduce the likelihood of intergroup violence. To accomplish this, we have commissioned country case studies by experts on development and conflict in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The first volume, Economic Development Strategies and the Evolution of Violence in Latin America, was published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2012. The present volume, with Asian country case studies and overview chapters covering the broad range of Asian subregions, also intends to outline considerations that can guide policymakers, development practitioners, and civil society leaders in conflict-sensitive development. The project s focus on development strategies should not be taken as a reductive effort to account for violence or peace solely on governmental development efforts. In any country, development efforts are embedded within a much more complicated matrix of social and political conditions, and levels of confrontation and violence reflect these conditions as well as external shocks ranging from natural disasters to global economic distress. Rather, our focus on development efforts simply reflects the fact that governments, if aware of the risks and opportunities that broad strategies and specific policies hold for intergroup violence, have the potential to introduce conflict-sensitive development initiatives, which would proactively contribute to reducing violence and strengthening postconflict rehabilitation and reconstruction. Little can be done about the fact that Hindus and Muslims have a bitter history of conflict, or that Kurds in Turkey and Tajiks in Uzbekistan speak differently than the rest of the population languages. Yet governments can select projects that are less likely to set one group against another, they

xii Preface and Acknowledgments can facilitate new economic roles that undermine negative stereotypes of conflicting groups and enhance societal cohesion, and they can expand the pie to provide various stakeholders with incentives for intergroup reconciliation and cooperation. The focus on development strategies is not restricted to narrowly economic aspects. When a government allocates a portion of the national budget to education, the development implications encompass issues ranging from the balance of spending on primary, secondary, and higher education with drastic consequences for the distribution of income if underfunded primary education leaves a portion of the population without needed skills to the languages of instruction. When a development strategy emphasizes a massive program of regional development, population movements into the targeted areas may have profound impacts on intergroup relations. Delivery of such basic services as health, social protection, and infrastructure can improve state-society and intergroup relations; yet poor design and implementation may exacerbate societal fragility and intergroup discord. Earlier versions of contributions to this volume were presented at workshops at Soka University of America (May 2010 and November 2011) and at Duke University (October 2010). We are grateful for insights and comments from all the participants of these workshops. We again wish to express our gratitude to Soka University of America for financial and administrative support, and for the fine work of Dr. John M. Heffron, Professor of History at Soka and Associate Director of the PBRC, ably assisted by Jason Tran, Jacqueline Mills, and Dawn Minette, in organizing workshops and overseeing the administration required to put together a collected volume such as this. We also appreciate the efforts of the Duke Center for International Development, especially those of Jonathan Abels, for arranging talks and workshop sessions that contributed to shaping the chapters in this volume. Valuable research assistance was provided by Claremont McKenna College students Heather Beck, Nathan Bengtsson, Molly Doyle, Jennifer Good, Isabel Harbaugh, Shanna Hoversten, Sofia Jamal, Daniel Maxwell, Catherine Raney, Nicholas Rowe, Carlton Rueb, Laura Spann, and Jennifer Zavaleta, as well as Ariana Ascher and Kaitlyn Tsai. At various stages of this project, the editors received helpful suggestions and insightful comments from David Chick, Ekhson Holmuhamedov, Srinivas Katikithala, Maureen Lempke, Michael Lofchie, Raisa Anatolievna Mirovitskaya, Aseema Sinha, and Jenny Taw. We would also like to acknowledge the highly efficient assistance provided to us by Sara Doskow at Palgrave Macmillan.

Contributors Ananthi Al Ramiah is an assistant professor of social sciences at Yale-NUS College in Singapore. With a doctorate in psychology from Oxford University, her research focuses on the social psychology of intergroup contact and intergroup conflict, and the psychological impact of affirmative action policies on beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries. Mikhail Alexseev is a professor of political science at San Diego State University. His research focuses on migration, ethnopolitical conflict, and post-soviet Russia. He is the principal investigator of an international research project on migration and ethnoreligious violence in the Russian Federation. Lorraine V. Aragon is a professor of anthropology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. A cultural anthropologist with interests in state institutions related to intergroup relations, cultural expression, and law, her research focuses on religious and ethnic differences in Southeast Asia, especially in Indonesia. William Ascher is the Donald C. McKenna Professor of Government and Economics at Claremont McKenna College, and serves as the director of the Pacific Basin Research Center at Soka University of America. His research is on political economy of developing countries. G. Shabbir Cheema is Director, Asia Pacific Governance and Democracy Initiative, and Senior Fellow at the East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii. He served as the Director of the Governance Division of the UN Development Programme and Program Director of the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. His research focuses on governance reform and democracy in Asia and the Pacific. Ebru Erdem-Akcay is a professor in the Political Science Department at the University of California, Riverside. Her research focuses on identity politics

xiv Contributors (ethnic, religious, and gender identities), conflict, and politics of Muslim societies, particularly in Central Asia and Turkey. Edward M. Feasel is Professor of Economics at Soka University of America, where he also serves as Dean of the Faculty. His research focuses on economic outcomes and societal values, regional economic issues, economic growth, and effects of monetary and fiscal policy. In addition to research on the United States, he has examined growth patterns in Northeast and Southeast Asia. Sumit Ganguly holds the Rabindranath Tagore Chair in Indian Cultures and Civilizations, and is a Professor of Political Science at Indiana University in Bloomington, where he also serves as Director of the Center on American and Global Security. His research focuses on the domestic politics of South Asian nations and South Asian international security. Natalia Mirovitskaya is a Senior Researcher and Lecturing Fellow, Duke Center for International Development. She has published extensively on sustainable development, environmental security, and peace-building. She has led and participated in numerous national and international research projects and has taught in several countries. Jennifer Oetken is a visiting faculty member at the George Washington University, as she completes her doctorate in political science at Indiana University on insurgency in India. Previously she served as deputy director of the South Asia Program at the Carnegie Endowment. Her research focuses on insurgency, internal security, and South Asia. Thillainathan Ramasamy is an adjunct professor of the Department of Economics at the University of Malaya. With a doctorate in economics from the London School of Economics, he has served in both government and private sector roles in economic policy, corporate leadership, and banking. His research interests range from domestic economic development to global f i n a nc i a l re f or m.