273 Bibliography Alexander (1972) 'The Law of Tort and Non-Physical Loss: Insurance Aspects', 12 JSPTL 119. Allen et a/. (1979) Accident Compensation after Pearson (Sweet & Maxwell). Atiyah (1967) 'Vicarious Liability in the Law of Torts'. Atiyah (1972) Res Ipsa Loquitur in England and Australia', 35 MLR 337. Atiyah (1987) Accidents, Compensation and the Law, 4th edn, ed, P. Cane (Weidenfeld & Nicolson). Atiyah (1989) An Introduction to the Law of Contract 4th edn (Oxford University Baker, (1990) An Introduction to English Legal History, 3rd edn (Butterworths). Baker and Milsom (1986) Sources of English Legal History (Butterworths). Bell (1983) Policy Arguments in Judicial Decisions (Oxford University Beyleveld and Brownsword (1991) 'Privity, Transivity and Rationality', 54 MLR 48. Birks (1985) An Introduction to the Law of Restitution (Oxford University Bishop (1980) 'Negligent Misrepresentation through Economists' Eyes', 96 LQR 360. Bishop (1982) 'Economic Loss in Tort', 2 OJLS I. Bowman and Bailey (1986) 'The Policy Operational Dichotomy - A Cuckoo in the Nest', 45 CLJ 430. Buckley (1981) The Law of Nuisance (Butterworths). Calabresi (1970) The Costs of Accidents (New Haven, CT). Calcutt (1990) Report on Privacy and Related Matters (HMSO), Cmnd 1102. Cane (1989) 'Economic Loss in Tort: Is the Pendulum out of Control', 52 MLR 200. Cane (1991) Tort Law and Economic Interests (Oxford University Clerk and Lindsell (1989) Torts, 16th edn, ed. R.W.M. Dias (Sweet & Maxwell). Cornish and Clark (1989) Law and Society in England 1750-1950 (Sweet & Maxwell). Craig (1989) Administrative Law (Sweet & Maxwell).
274 Bibliography Dias (1967) 'Trouble on Oiled Waters: Problems of The Wagon Mound (No 2)' (1967] CU 62. Dias and Markesinis (1989) Tort Law, 2nd edn (Oxford University Dworkin (1986) Law's Empire (Fontana). Flemming (1987) The Law of Torts, 6th edn (The Law Book Co.). Fleming (1988) The American Tort Process (Oxford University Fleming (1989a) 'Probabilistic Causation in Tort Law', 68 Can. Bar Rev. 661. Fleming (1989b) 'Property Damage-Economic Loss: A Comparative View', 105 LQR 508. Fleming (1990) 'Requiem for Anns', 106 LQR 525. Fleming (1992) The Law of Torts, 7th edn (The Law Book Co.). Furmston (ed.) (1986) The Law of Tort: Policies and Trends in Liability for Damage to Property and Economic Loss (Duckworth). Gearty (1989) 'The Place of Private Nuisance in the Modern Law of Torts', 48 CLJ 214. Gilmore (1974) The Death of Contract (Ohio State University Green (1989) Land Law (Macmillan). Grubb and Mullis (1991) 'An Unfair Law for Dangerous Products: The Fall of Anns' [1991], Conv., 225. Grubb and Pearl (1990) Blood Testing, Aids and DNA Profiling: Law and Policy (Jordan). Harlow (1987) Understanding Tort Law (Fontana). Harris (1988) Remedies in Contract and Tort (Weidenfeld & Nicolson). Harris, Maclean, Genn, Lloyd Bostock, Fenn, Corfield and Brittan (1984) Compensation and Support for Illness and Injury (Oxford University Harris and Veljanovski (1986) 'Liability for Economic Loss in Tort', in Furmston (1986), 45. Hart & Honore (1985) Causation in the Law, 2nd edn (Oxford University Hepple and Matthews (1991) Tort: Cases and Materials, 4th edn (Butterworths). Hitcham (1986) 'Some Insurance Aspects', in Furmston (1986), 191. Holmes (1881) The Common Law (London). Honore (1983) 'Causation and Remoteness of Damage', Int. Enc. Comp. L., XI, Torts, Ch. 7. Jaffey (1985) 'Volenti Non Fit Injuria', 44 CU 87-110. Jackson and Powell (1992) Professional Negligence, 3rd edn (Sweet & Maxwell). Jolowicz (1987) 'Product Liability-Directive and Bill', 46 CLJ 16. Kemp (1984) 3 CJQ 120. Kemp and Kemp (1985) The Quantum of Damages, 4th edn. Kodilinye (1986) 'Public Nuisance and Particular Damage in Modern Law', 6 LS 182. Kodilinye (1989) 'Standing to Sue in Private Nuisance', 9 LS 284. Law Commission (1969) 'The Interpretation of Statutes', Law Com., 21.
Bibliography 275 Lewis (1988) 'Pensions Replace Lump Sum Damages: Are Structured Settlements in Most Important Reform of Tort in Modem Times', 15 JLS 392. Likierman (Chairman) (1989) Professional Liability Review (HMSO). McKendrick (1990) Contract Law (Macmillan). Maitland (1936) The Forms of Action at Common Law (Cambridge University Markesinis (1987) 'An Expanding Tort Law - The Price of a Rigid Contract Law', 103 LQR 354. Markesinis (1989) 'Negligence, Nuisance and Affirmative Duties of Action', 105 LQR 104. Markesinis and Deakin (1992) 'The Random Element of their Lordships' Infallible Judgement: An Economic and Comparative Analysis of the Tort of Negligence from Anns to Murphy', 55 MLR 619. Mullis (1991) 'Review of Tort Cases', All England Rev., 396--8. Newark (1949) 'The Boundaries of Nuisance', 65 LQR 480. Newark (1961) 'Non-Natural User and Rylands v. Fletcher', 24 MLR 557. Newdick (1985) 'Strict Liability for Defective Drugs in the Pharmaceutical Industry', 101 LQR 405. Newdick (1988) 'The Development Risk Defence of the Consumer Protection Act 1987', 47 CLJ 455. North (1972) 'Breach of Confidence: Is there a New Tort?', 12 JSPTL 149. O'Dair (1991) 'Murphy v. Brentwood District Council: A House with Firm Foundations?', 54 MLR 561. Pearson, Lord (Chairman) (1978) Royal Commission on Civil Liability and Compensation for Personal Injury (HMSO), Cmnd 7054. Priest (1987) 'The Current Insurance Crisis and Modem Tort Law', 96 Yale LJ 1521-90. Salmond and Heuston (1992) The Law of Torts, 20th edn by R.F.V. Heuston and R.A Buckley (Sweet & Maxwell). Schlechtriem (1989) 'Presentation of a Product and Products Liability under the EC Directive', 9 Tel Aviv Studies in Law 33. Smith and Bums (1983) 'Donoghue v. Stevenson - the Not So Golden Anniversary', 46 MLR 147. Spencer (1987) 'Flooding, Fault and Private Nuisance', 46 CLJ 205. Spencer (1989) 'Public Nuisance- A Critical Examination', 48 CLJ 55. Stanton (1986) Breach of Statutory Duty (Sweet & Maxwell). Stapleton (1986a) Disease and the Compensation Debate (Oxford University Stapleton (1986b) 'Products Liability Reform - Real or Illusory?', 6 OJLS 392. Stapleton (1988a) 'The Gist of Negligence: Part I (Minimum Actionable Damage)', 104 LQR 213. Stapleton (1988b) 'The Gist of Negligence: Part II (The Relationship between Damage and Causation)', 104 LQR 389.
276 Bibliography Stapleton (1991) 'Duty of Care and Economic Loss: A Wider Agenda', 107 LQR 249. Stevens (1964) 'Hedley Byrne v. Heller: Judicial Creativity and Doctrinal Possibility', 27 MLR 121. Sutherland (1992) 'Fair Comment by the House of Lords?', 55 M LR 278. Tunc (1983) 'Introduction', Inc. Enc. Comp. L., XI, Torts, Ch. I. Wedderburn (1978) 'Natural Nuisances Again', 41 MLR 589. Weinrib (1975) 'A Step Forward in Factual Causation', 38 MLR 518. Weir (1989) 'Government Liability' [1989] PL 40. Weir (1990) 'Statutory Auditor not Liable to Purchaser of Shares', 49 CLJ 212. Weir (1991) 'Fixing the Foundations', 50 CLJ 24. Weir (1992) A Casebook on Tort, 7th edn (Sweet & Maxwell). Whittaker (1989) 'European Product Liability and Intellectual Products', 105 LQR 125. Williams (1960) 'Penal Legislation in the Law of Tort', 23 MLR 232. Williams and Hepple (1984) Foundations of the Law of Tort, 2nd edn (Butterworths). Winfield and Jolowicz (1989) Tort, 13th edn, ed. by W.V.H. Rogers (Sweet & Maxwell). Wright (1985) 'Causation in Tort Law', 73 Cal. L. Rev. 1737.
277 Index A accidents insurance 15--17 at work 19, 104 Act of God 198 act(s) omissions and 50, 51 words and 38 advice, professional 41, 42 aftermath of accidents 25, 29 Agent Orange litigation 82-3 amends for defamation, offer of 224--5 amenities, loss of, damages for 252-3 animals, liability for 109-10, 181 see also cattle trespass; scienter action Anns, retreat from 21 assault 156, 158, 160, 161 see also battery; false imprisonment auditors, liability of 42, 43, 47 Australia, compensation schemes B in 112, 116 battery 156, 158-61 benefits, collateral 260, 267 'birth, wrongful' 20 Bolam test 74 buildings, defective 34--5, 37, 43, 46, 125 'business liability' 97, 101 'business motive' in supply of products 140 'but for' test in deciding causal relevance 79--80 c care duty of 9--11, 19--22, 70-78 in nervous shock cases 26 objective standard of 70-3, 188 of occupier 119, 121, 123-7, 188 cattle trespass II 0 causal relevance 79--80, 82-7, 89, 113 causation 79--88 'cause' interpretation of words in Consumer Protection Act 1987 139 causes, pre-empted 79--81 chance, claim for loss of 83 child, unborn 61-2 children consent of 168 damages for 255, 257-8, 266 duty of care to 124 juvenile courts reporting 204 responsibility for 52, 53 standards expected of 71 as trespassers 122 civil and criminal wrongs 3-4, 156, 245--6 civil remedy for breach of statutory duty 144, 145, 150 common interest, defamation, qualified privilege 222 common practice, precautions in 73-4 communicant of shocking news, liability of 30 compensation 12-14, 33 see also damages; economic loss; injuries; workers' compensation schemes 'complex structures' 35, 44, 139 confidence, breach of 203 consent 166-8, 198 consumer protection 133-5 contract assumption of risk 97, 98 breach of 5 defective products 132-3 disclosure of 220 primacy over law of tort 45 test equivalency to contract 40, 41 and voluntary see also exclusions contractors activities of 186, 195, 199 distinguished from servants 232-4 liability for 237-9 contribution to damages between tortfeastors 241-2 contributory negligence 96--9 defence for occupier 126, 190 in product liability 142 in trespass to the person 165 'control' test 233-4 conversion 109 costs of compensation 113, 117 relation to damages 245 criminal and civil law 3-4 Criminal Injuries Compensation Scheme 12 D damage, proof of in slander 211
278 Index damages aggravated 246--7 assessment of 250-1 as compensation 244, 247 contemptuous 244-5 in defamation 225--6 exemplary 165, 245--6 for non-pecuniary loss 251-3 for pecuniary loss 253--{i I nominal 244-5 preventative 37-8, 44 provisional 248 in private nuisance 178, 197 for property damage 267-8 recoverable only once 247-9 special and general 249 structured settlements 248-9 for trespass to the person 165, 247 see also compensation; contribution; illegality; loss; nervous shock death damages for 261 effect on existing causes of action 261-2 defamation 203-28 dependants, claims by 262-7 deterrence 14, 116 'development risk' 141 disability, congenital 61-2 duty non-delegable 238-9 to others 51--6, 119 statements made by performance E of 220-1 statutory breach of 115, 144-55 earnings, loss of 253-8 earnings-related compensation 116 easements 179, 180, 188-9 economic loss 32-46 employees, injuries to 95 employers duties of 74, Ill, 239 liability of 13 see also master and servant relationship employment, tort 'in course or 234-7 environment, harm to 176 escapes, hazardous, from land 195--7 executive privilege 218-19 exclusions of liability 97, 100-2, 129, 142 European Community Law European Court of Justice F 115, 133 134, 141 fair comment 215--17 false imprisonment 156--64 'fault' principle in nuisance law 176 fault-based liability Ill fiduciary duty, breach of 4-5 fire 198-9 fireman, liability to 125 'floodgates' argument 15--16, 20, 30, 44, 45 foreseeability 20, 21 of loss and damage 36, 39, 40, 89-92 in negligence 176 in nervous shock 24-6 in plaintiffs 58-61 frolic 235 G goods, wrongful interference with 109 government servants, and exemplary damages 46--7 group defamation 211 H harm, infliction of 164-5 hazardous activities on land 195--200 hazards, natural, liability for 187-8 highway escape from 197 obstruction of 175, 190 nuisances on 186, 190-1 structures adjacent to 180 hypersensitive activities 183-3 I illegality effect on claims 103-5 in trespass to the person 165 impecuniosity, as cause of loss 92-3 importers, product liability of 139 imprisonment, false 156--64 indeterminate defendant or plaintiff 83, 84 'industrial process' 138 inflation, in assessment of damages 255--6 injunctions 178, 268-70 injuries caused by defective product 139 personal, compensation for 112-17, 197, 247-53 at sporting events 96 innuendo 207-8, 213-15 insurance 13, 15, 16, 44, 45 in actions for personal injury 250 and breach of statutory duty 150 of contractors 238 for personal injury 250 on product liability 138 in structured settlements 248 interest on damages, award of 259--60 interest, privilege of 221-2 interface in use and enjoyment of land 178-82 interlocutory injunction 269
Index 279 J judicial proceedings, privilege of 218, 222 judicial review 146, 147 jury, in defamation actions 225--6 justification, in defamation 213-15 L land, interference with 175-200 landowners liability of 54--6, 87, 100, 101, 188 rights and duties of 176, 238 Learned Hand formula 71 legal profession, immunity of 67-8 liability fault-based and strict Ill, 112, 115, 152, 179, 191 immunity from 64--5 joint 239--42 in negligent misrepresentation (Hedley Byrne) 39--47 in nervous shock cases of 29 of public bodies 37 see also animals; care, duty of; deterrence; exclusions; floodgates; insurance; landowners; occupiers; vicarious liability libel 210-12 life expectancy, reduced, effect of damages 257-8 'locality principle' in nuisance 182 M malice 217-19, 223-4 mandatory injunction 269 master and servant relationship 232-7, 240 'master's tort' theory 231 meaning of words, in defamation 206-8, 213-15 medical cases, consent in 167-8, 170, 171 medical expenses 114, 258-9 medical misadventure 116, 117 mentally handicapped persons and consent 168 responsibility for 52, 53 merchantable quality 34, 132 misconduct, intentional 237 motive, in land use 184--5, 192 N name, unauthorised use of 204 'natural right' 179, 180 natural, forces of 181, 190 necessity, justifying trespass 169--70, 198 negligence 6, 18 in assumption of responsibility 100-1 breach of duty treated as 153 and nuisance 176, 191-3 and trespass II 0 see also care, duty of; contributory negligence; omissions; plaintiff, problem negligent misrepresentation 33-47, 203 'neighbour' principle 10, 19, 50, 133 nervous shock 23-32, 92, 164 New Zealand, compensation schemes in 112, 116, 117 'no fault' compensation 115-16 'non-natural' use of land 196 novus actus interveniens 210 nuisance 119 and negligence 191-3 private 175, 178-94, 204 public 175 relating to land 175-7 statutory 175--6 0 occupier's liability 119--31 omissions 50-57 liability for 66-7, 119 out-of-court settlements 102-3, 250 overkill in compensation 16-17, 46 p pain and suffering, damages for 252 Parliamentary privilege 218, 222 passenger in motor vehicles 97, 99--100 Pearson Commission 112-17, 253, 258 person and personal property, interference with I 09--18, 195 see also assault; battery; false imprisonment; goods, wrongful interference with; trespass to the person personality, interference with 203-4 photographs, unauthorised taking of 203 pictures, use of 204 plaintiff, reference to, in defamation 210-11 plaintiff, problem 58-62 police liability of 66-7 powers of arrest 165 policy in breach of statutory duty 147, 149 limitation of liability 44, 64--8 in negligence 11-17 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 23 premises, definition of 119 prescriptive right 188 prisoners, responsibility for 53 privacy, protection of 204 privilege 217-24 product, defective 33-6, 44, 45, 115 product liability 75, 115, 132--43 profits made by wrongdoer 5 prohibited conduct 236-7
280 Index prohibitory injunction 269 promise, breach of 5 property control of 54--6 damage to 119,128,139,182-3,197, 267-8 protection of 169 proprietary interest 197-8 'proximity' 20, 21, 59 proximity and nervous shock 24, 25 psychiatrists, evidence of 23 public bodies, liability of 64--6 'public conscience' test I 03-4 public interest, in defamation cases 215-17, 221 public officials, privilege of 219 public rights created by statute 151 publication of defamatory statement 208-10 Q quia timet injunction 269-70 R railway transport, liability in 96, 115 reasonable, test of 181-2, 185, 191 remoteness of damage 58, 89-93, 139, 192 reports, privilege of 222-3 reputation, interference with 203-28 res ipsa loquitur 75, 76 rescue operations, and nervous shock 26 rescuers 59-61, 98 relationship, special 40 responsibility assumption of 40, 51, 99-102, 190 disclaimer of 39 'right thinking man' 205-6 rights see natural rights rights of way 121, 128 risk exceptional, liability in 115, 125 voluntary assumption of 38, 60, 95-9 road traffic legislation, civil action for breach of 150 Rylands v. Fletcher, the rule in 195-200 s safety legislation, and breach of duty actions 150 scienter action II 0, Ill self-defence 168-9 'several concurrent' tortfeasters 240 slander, distinction from libel 211-12 social security and compensation 13, 111-14, 260, 261 'special damage' 151, 175, 190 'state of the art' defence in product liability 141 statutory authority 189, 198 Statutory Sick Pay 116 subsidence 180, 190 surveyors, liability of 42-3 T tax payable on damages 257 television 25, 27, 180, 183, 218 Thalidomide cases 112, 133 'thin skull' rule 85, 92 tort, definition and classification 3-7 trespass assimilated to negligence 110 to goods 109 toland 175-7 to the person 109, 110, 156-72 trespass duty and liability to 101, 119, 122, 127-9 ejection from land 169 liability for acts of 55, 187, 190 trusts, Jaw of 4-5 truth, in actions for defamation 213-16 u unconscious patient consent of 168 damages for 114, 252-3 v vaccine damage, liability for 115 vicarious liability 115, 133, 186, 195, 231-42 victims, primary and secondary 16, 59 view, blocking of 180 vis major 195, 198 visitors, liability to 119-26 volenti non fit iniuria 95, 126, 139, 142 w Wagon Mound test of remoteness 58, 89-91, 139 waste products, discharge of 140 water rights 179, 180, 185, 193 witnessing of injury, shock caused by 28-9 workers' compensation schemes l II, 112