B/67955 COMPARATIVE POLITICS A Global Introduction SECOND EDITION Michael J. Sodaro The George Washington University With contributions by: Dean W. Collinwood University of Utah Bruce J. Dickson The George Washington University Joseph L. Klesner Kenyon College Timothy D. Sisk University of Denver Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA Madison, Wl New York San Francisco St. Louis Bangkok Bogota Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto
CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgments PART ONE CONCEPTS AND CRITICAL THINKING 1. COMPARATIVE POLITICS: WHAT IS WHY STUDY IT? A Global Introduction Countries Concepts Critical Thinking Comparative Politics and International Politics Globalization THE GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS OF 1997-99 THE POLITICS OF THE BRAZILIAN RAIN FOREST Democratization THE DEMOCRATIC REVOLUTIONS OF OUR TIMES xvii xxi IT? 3 7 7 7 7 9 10 11 17 19 20 THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS DEMOCRACY AND PEACE The Purposes of Comparison Key Terms 2. MAJOR TOPICS OF COMPARATIVE POLITICS What Is Politics? Democracy and Authoritarianism Political Processes Goals Sources of Political Conflict Power Resources Identity TJ,., metis Values Games People Play Key Terms 22 24 26 27 27 30 30 31 34 37 37 37 38 38 1 G 4o 50 51 52 54 IX
3. CRITICAL THINKING ABOUT POLITICS: ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES OF POLITICAL SCIENCE THE LOGIC OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING I. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES OF POLITICAL SCIENCE O«g7zf-Questions and Js-Questions Ought -Questions and Policy Prescription "What Is?" A Guide to Empirical Political Analysis Definition Description: Observing, Collecting, Comparing Explanation and Generalization Quantitative and Qualitative Political Science Logical Fallacies II. THE LOGIC OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING Sources of Hypotheses Steps of Hypothesis Testing Defining Key Terms Identifying Our Variables Specifying the Expectations of the Hypothesis Collecting and Examining the Evidence Drawing Conclusions from the Evidence Paradoxes of Causative Logic The Practical Importance of Hypothesis Testing Counterintuitive Results Some Concluding Thoughts Developing Critical-Thinking Skills Key Terms 4. POWER POWER IN IRAQ Defining Power Who Has Power? And How Much? Power as Dominance Power as Influence IS THE UNITED STATES DOMINATED BY A "POWER ELITE"? Power and Elites WEBER'S THREE TYPES OF LEGITIMATE AUTHORITY 56 56 56 56 58 59 60 60 74 75 77 77 78 79 79 79 80 85 90 91 92 93 94 94 94 96 96 98 99 100 100 101 101 103 POWER IN IRAN Hypotheses on Power Economics and Power POWER IN NEW HAVEN Tlie Abuse of Power Corruption and Power Powerlessness WEAPONS OF THE WEAK Key Terms and Names 5. THE STATE AND ITS INSTITUTIONS Defining the State THREE MEANINGS OF "STATE" Sovereignty, Legitimacy, Autonomy, and Purposes of the State State Institutions The Executive The Legislature The Judiciary The Bureaucracy The Military THE MILITARY IN POLITICS: TURKEY AND PAKISTAN How States Are Organized Hypotheses on the State THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS Key Terms and Names 6. STATES AND NATIONS: NATIONALISM NATION BUILDING SUPRANATIONALISM Nationalism Constituting the Nation as a Political Actor Nation Building State Nationalism in International Affairs When the Nation and the State Don't Fit Together CANADA ISRAEL AND THE PALESTINIANS THE DISINTEGRATION OF YUGOSLAVIA Supranationalism 107 111 111 111 111 112 115 115 115 115 119 119 120 120 123 124 125 125 126 127 127 132 133 136 138 138 141 143 144 146 147 148 149 150 154 157
XI THE EUROPEAN UNION 157 ARE EUROPEANS DEVELOPING A COMMON SUPRANATIONAL IDENTITY? 159 Key Terms 160 160 7. DEMOCRACY: WHAT IS IT? 162 Purposes and Paradoxes of Democracy 162 Four Faces of Democracy 164 WHO IS A CITIZEN? VOTING RIGHTS IN THE BALTIC STATES 166 Minimum and Maximum Forms of Democracy 168 Face I. Democracy as Popular Sovereignty 168 TECHNO-DEMOCRACY 171 Face II. Democracy as Rights and Liberties 172 Face III. Democracy as a Value System 173 DEMOCRACY IN MAJORITANIA 173 CONSOCIATIONAL DEMOCRACY 175 Face IV. Economic Democracy 177 How People View Democracy 181 Key Terms 182 182 8. DEMOCRACY: HOW DOES IT WORK? STATE INSTITUTIONS AND ELECTORAL SYSTEMS 185 State Institutions 185 Presidentialism 185 Parliamentary Government 187 Presidential-Parliamentary Democracies 193 Comparisons 195 Electoral Systems 196 Electing a President 196 Legislative Elections 198 Key Terms 205 205 9. DEMOCRACY: WHAT DOES IT TAKE? TEN CONDITIONS 207 Ten Conditions for Democracy 207 1. State Institutions 208 2. Elites Committed to Democracy 111 3. A Homogeneous Society 212 4. National Wealth 213 5. Private Enterprise 214 6. A Middle Class 215 7. Support of the Disadvantaged for Democracy 215 8. Citizen Participation, Civil Society, and a Democratic Political Culture 216 9. Education and Freedom of Information 218 10. A Favorable International Environment 219 AFGHANISTAN 220 Is Democracy Inevitable? 227 Key Terms 228 228 10. PEOPLE AND POLITICS: VOTERS- PARTIES INTEREST GROUPS DISSIDENCE REVOLUTION 230 Mass Participation in Democracies 230 THE LOGIC OF COLLECTIVE ACTION 230 Elections 232 Political Parties 234 HYPOTHESIS-TESTING EXERCISE: DUVERGER'S LAW 240 Interest Groups 242 INTEREST-GROUP PLURALISM IN THE UNITED STATES: THE POLITICS OF HEALTH CARE REFORM, 1993-94 243 Social Movements 246 Patron-Client Relationships 246 Mass Participation in Authoritarian Regimes 247 Dissidence 248 Revolution 249 Key Terms 251 251 11. POLITICAL CULTURE 255 Defining Political Culture 255 Political Socialization and Psychology 258 Studies of Political Culture 259 DOES POLITICAL CULTURE MATTER? 260 Conceptualizing Political Culture 261 Do Political Cultures Change? 265 Key Terms 268 268
Xll 12. IDEOLOGY Liberalism Liberalism and Conservatism in the United States Liberalism and Conservatism Around the World Socialism Marxism Soviet-Style Communism Social Democracy Socialism in the Developing World Fascism Hypernationalism Racism Totalitarianism Mass Mobilization Through Propaganda and Coercion Religion as Political Ideology: Islam Origins Expansion and Decline Religion and Politics Islam and Violence Islam and Democracy Many Islams The Left Right Spectrum THE END OF IDEOLOGY? Key Terms 13. POLITICAL ECONOMY: LAISSEZ- FAIRE CENTRAL PLANNING MIXED ECONOMIES- WELFARE STATES A TOURIST'S GUIDE TO INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS BASIC ECONOMIC CONCEPTS Laissez-Faire Capitalism ADAM SMITH (1723-1790) WAS ADAM SMITH RIGHT? The Centrally Planned Economy Mixed Economies JOHN MAYNARD KEYNES (1883-1946) Welfare States The Emergence of the Modern Welfare State: Germany, Sweden, and the United States The Postwar Welfare State 270 271 272 273 273 274 278 280 281 282 282 282 283 283 284 284 286 287 287 288 290 290 291 293 293 295 295 298 300 301 302 303 305 306 308 308 309 Farewell to the Welfare State? 310 The Politics of Welfare States 312 Key Terms and Names 314 314 14. THE POLITICS OF DEVELOPMENT 316 Newly Industrializing Countries 317 South Korea 317 Underdeveloped Countries 321 Population 322 Sociocultural Explanations 323 Domestic Economy Explanations 324 International Explanations 324 Domestic Political Explanations 326 India 328 INDIA AND THE TEN CONDITIONS FOR DEMOCRACY 332 Key Terms and Names 336 336 PART TWO COUNTRIES AND LEADERS 15. THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND 341 Historical Background: The Evolution of British Democracy 344 The Mother of Parliaments 345 Nationalism and Political Culture 348 Private Enterprise and the Middle Class 349 The Rise of Political Parties 350 British Politics Since World War II 353 PROFILE: MARGARET THATCHER 355 PROFILE: TONY BLAIR 358 SOCIAL CLASS IN BRITISH POLITICS 361 British Democracy Today: Parties, Elections, and State Institutions 362 Parties and Elections 362 THE BATTLE OF WIMBLEDON: RUNNING FOR THE HOUSE OF COMMONS IN 2001 369 Parliament 372 The Government 377 The Monarchy 379
xm Political Issues in Today's Britain 380 Conclusion 383 Key Terms and Names 384 Websites 385 385 16. FRANCE 388 Historical Background: The Evolution of French Democracy 392 The French State 392 French Nationalism 396 Social Class and Democracy 397 Politics in the Fifth Republic 400 PROFILE: CHARLES DE GAULLE 400 PROFILE: FRANCOIS MITTERRAND 406 French State Institutions 408 The Dual Executive 408 Parliament 414 The Constitutional Council 417 The Civil Service 417 Local Government and Decentralization 418 Political Parties 419 PROFILE: JACQUES CHIRAC 420 LEFT AND RIGHT IN PARIS 426 ARE FRANCE'S INSTITUTIONS DYSFUNCTIONAL? 428 Political Issues in Today's France 429 Conclusion 433 Key Terms and Names 433 433 17. GERMANY 437 The Revolution of 1989-90 438 Historical Background: Germany's Difficult Path to Democracy 442 The Weakness of German Liberalism 443 German Nationalism 444 The Creation of the German State 444 The Weimar Republic 446 The Fascist Regime 449 Democracy in the Federal Republic of Germany 451 Tlie Formation of Parties 451 The Basic Lazv and the Federal Republic of German's Institutional Framezvork 452 A Federal System 453 The Bundesrat 454 The Bundestag 457 The Presidency 462 The Federal Judiciary 463 The Bundesbank 464 Governments and Politics in the Federal Republic 465 Building a Democratic Political Culture 465 The Adenauer Era (1949-63) 466 The Grand Coalition (1966-69) 466 Brandt in Power (1969-74) 467 Schmidt's Governments (1974-82) 468 Kohl's Governments 469 The SPD-Green Coalition 470 PROFILE: GERHARD SCHROEDER 471 Joschka Fischer and the Greens 473 The 2002 Elections 474 Neo-Corporatism and Germany's Political Economy 475 HYPOTHESIS TESTING EXERCISE: NEO-CORPORATISM IN GERMANY 476 Political Issues in Today's Germany 478 The Economy 478 Immigration 479 Conclusion 479 Key Terms and Names 480 Websites 481 481 18. JAPAN DEAN W. COLLINWOOD 484 Political Paralysis in the 1990s 485 Democracy and Political Conflict in Japan 488 Historical Background of Japanese Politics: Why No Democracy? 489 The Rise of Party Politics 491 Conflict Between the Military and the Civilian Government 492 Japan and the Conditions for Democracy 494 Building Japanese Democracy 494 The Occupation Begins 494 Japan's Constitution 495 Political Parties in Postwar Japan 496 The Results of One-Party Dominance 498 PROFILE: KAKEUI TANAKA 499
XIV Japan's Political Economy: From "Japan Inc." to the "Bubble" 500 The Japanese Bureaucracy 504 The Bursting Bubble 506 THE JAPANESE ECONOMY 506 Political Change since 1993 507 The 1993 Elections 507 The Electoral Reforms Take Effect 509 The 1996 Elections 510 Aftermath of the 1996 Elections 511 The 2511 Elections 511 PROFILE: JUNICHIRO KOIZUMI 513 The 2003 Elections 515 Clues to Attitudes and Behavior: Ideology, Political Culture, and Social Class 516 Does Ideology Matter? 516 Ideology, Political Culture, and Class Identity in Historical Perspective 516 Political Attitudes and Social Class in Postwar Japan 518 Consensus and Conflict in Contemporary Japan 520 Conclusion 521 Key Terms and Names 522 523 Websites 524 19. RUSSIA 525 Russia's Historical Traditions: Why No Democracy? 530 Tsarism 530 Communism 535 The Collapse of Soviet Communism 545 PROFILE: MIKHAIL GORBACHEV 545 Boris Yeltsin's Russia 550 Contemporary Russia 562 The Institutional Structure 562 is RUSSIA'S POLITICAL SYSTEM UNDERMINING DEMOCRACY? 568 Socioeconomic Conditions: National Wealth, Private Enterprise, the Middle Class, and the Disadvantaged 570 Civil Society and Political Culture 571 Education and Freedom of Information 573 The International Environment 573 Conclusion 574 Key Terms and Names 575 575 20. CHINA BRUCE J. DICKSON 579 China's Historical Legacies: Why No Democracy? 582 The Chinese Communist Party and China's Civil War 585 PROFILE: MAO ZEDONG 585 The Communists Take Over 587 China's Political Institutions 588 The Chinese Communist Party 588 The State 589 Politics in Mao's China 591 Legacies of the Cultural Revolution 596 PROFILE: DENG XIAOPING 597 Politics in the Reform Era 598 Overconcentration of Power 599 Lack of Formal Institutions 599 Rejuvenation of the Party 599 Weak Bureaucracy 600 Reconciliation of Party and Society 601 China's Economic Development Strategies 601 The Soviet Model (1953-57) 601 Self-Reliance (1957-76) 603 The Reform Era (1978- Present) 604 State-Society Relations in China 608 Fundamental Features of State-Society Relations 608 Post-Mao Changes in State-Society Relations 610 Political Participation in China 612 The Democracy Wall Movement 614 Student Demonstrations, 1986-87 615 The Tiananmen Crisis, Spring 1989 615 China's Leaders Today 617 PROFILE: JIANG ZEMIN 617 PROFILE: HU JINTAO 618 PROFILES: OTHER LEADERS 619 THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA ON TAIWAN 620 PROSPECTS FOR CHINA'S DEMOCRATIZATION 622
XV Conclusion 624 Key Terms and Names 625 625 Websites 627 21. MEXICO AND BRAZIL JOSEPH L. KLESNER 628 Mexico 631 The Setting 632 Tlie Evolution of Mexican Politics 633 Mexico Under the PR1 636 EXPLAINING MEXICAN AUTHORITARIANISM 640 Economic Development 643 Is Democratization Under Way? 646 Manifestations of Political Change 647 PROFILE: VICENTE FOX 650 NAFTA 654 Hypotheses on Democratization 657 Brazil 659 The Setting 659 Brazil's Political Development 661 Explaining Brazilian Authoritarianism 666 Brazilian Economic Development 669 Brazil's New Democracy 670 The New Republic and Its Institutions 673 PROFILE: LUIZ INACIO "LULA" DA SILVA 677 Hypotheses on Democracy and Democratization 680 Conclusion 681 Key Terms and Names 682 Websites 682 682 22. NIGERIA AND SOUTH AFRICA TIMOTHY D. SISK 686 Africa: From Cradle of Humanity to Conquest and Colonialism 686 Patterns of Colonialism 689 Legacies of Colonialism: Explaining Underdevelopment 690 African Nationalism: The Pursuit of the Political Kingdom From Liberation Struggle to Governance Patterns of Post-Independence Politics The African Renaissance Nigeria The Mosaic of a Diverse Society The First Republic (1960-66) Military Intervention and Civil War The Second Republic (1979-83) Babangida's Dictatorship The Troubled Transition (1993) Abacha's Dictatorship From Prisoner to President: Olusegun Obasanjo DEMOCRACY IN NIGERIA South Africa Apartheid, Conflict, and Liberation White Domination and Black Protest PROFILE: NELSON MANDELA The Turbulent Transition The Neiv South Africa DEMOCRACY IN SOUTH AFRICA SOUTH AFRICA'S GOVERNMENT Conclusion Key Terms and Names Websites Credits Index 690 692 693 695 696 696 698 698 699 700 701 702 702 704 706 707 708 709 710 712 715 717 718 718 718 719 721 723