Criminal Law Text, Cases, and Materials Third Edition Janet Loveless UNIVERSITY PRESS
Contents Guide to using the book Guide to the Online Resource Centre this edition Preface Acknowledgements Table cases Table of statutes VI viii x xi xxiv xxv xxxviii 1 Introduction and General Principles 1.1 About this Book 1.1.1 Introduction 1.1.2 Sequence of Chapters 3 1.1.3 Explanation Law 3 1.2 What is Crime? 4 1.2.1 to Others 4 1.2.2 Morality: Harm to Oneself? 1.2.3 Politics g 1.2.4 Regulatory Offences 1.3 Presumption of Innocence and the Burden of Proof 1.3.1 The General Principle 12 1.3.2 Exceptions to the Prosecution Bearing the Burden of Proof 14 1.4 Classification of Crimes and Courts 15 1.4.1 Classification of Crimes 15 1.4.2 The Courts 16 1.5 The Criminal Trial 18 1.5.1 From Arrest to Trial 18 1.5.2 The Adversarial System 20 1.5.3 The Inquisitorial System 21 1.5.4 Distinction between Criminal and Civil Proceedings 22 1.5.5 Functions of Judge and Jury 22 1.6 Sources of the Criminal Law 22 1.6.1 Statute and Common Law 23 1.6.2 The Draft Criminal Code 1989 23 1.6.3 The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR) 23 1.6.4 The Human Rights Act 1998 25 The Criminal Justice System 26 17.1 Crime in Britain Today: Public Statistics 2? The Typical Defendant 28
17.3 The Typical Victim 28 Diversions from the System: Cautioning, Plea Bargaining 28 The Police 29 17.6 Why is there so much Crime? 29 Why do Miscarriages of Justice Happen? 30 17.8 Will Recent Reforms Improve the Conviction Rate? Victims v Suspects 31 17.9 we Punish? 31 17.10 Is there Equality in Punishment? 32 Conclusion 32 Chapter 2 Actus Reus: Acts, Omissions and Causation 36 Si 2.1 Acts 38 does Actus Reus Mean? 39 2.1.2 Coincidence/Correspondence of Actus Reus and Mens Rea 4? 2.2 in Duty 51 2.2.1 Introduction: Acts and Omissions 52 2.2.2 Statutory Offences of Failing to Act in Breach of Duty: Conduct Crimes 53 2.2.3 Common Law Commission by Crimes and the Five Duty Situations 53 2.2.4 Criticisms of Omissions Liability 71 2.2.5 Evaluation 2.2.6 Reform 2.3 Causation 2.3.1 Introduction 2.3.2 Factual Causation?7 2.3.3 Legal Causation 78 2.3.4 Conclusion 98 2.3.5 Reform 99 Chapter 3 Mens Rea: Intention, Recklessness, Negligence and Gross Negligence 3.1 Intention 3.1.1 Introduction 106 3.1.2 Context: Intention and Murder 3.1.3 Intention: Ordinary Actions and Result are Desired 3.1.4 Legal Meaning: Direct or Purpose 108 3.1.5 The Distinction between Motive and Intention 109 3.1.6 Mercy Killings 3.17 Doctors, Effect 3.1.8 Oblique or Indirect Intent: Foresight of a Virtual Certainty 112 3.1.9 The Test for Intention is Subjective: Section 8 Criminal Justice Act 196? Finding Intention from the Evidence 115 3.1.11 Oblique Intention Distinguished from Recklessness: Foresight of a Virtual Certainty v Foresight of Risk 3.1.12 Evaluation 3.1.13 Reform 3.1.14 Transferred Malice
3.2 Recklessness 136 3.2.1 Introduction 136 3.2.2 Definitions 3.2.3 The Current Legal Definition: Subjective/Advertent Recklessness: The Conscious Taking of an Unjustified Risk 138 3.2.4 Previous Caldwell Recklessness 142 3.2.5 Subjective Recklessness is now Restored Throughout the Criminal Law 151 3.2.6 the House Lords in to Caldwell? 152 3.27 How to Distinguish Recklessness from Intention 153 3.2.8 How to Distinguish Recklessness from Negligence 154 Reform 154 3.2.10 Evaluation and Conclusion 154 3.3 Negligence and Gross Negligence 156 3.3.1 Negligence 156 3.3.2 Negligent Mistake 3.3.3 The Distinction between Negligence and Recklessness 158 3.3.4 Should Negligence be a Basis of Fault? 158 3.3.5 Gross Negligence 158 3.3.6 Reform 164 Chapter 4 Strict, Vicarious and Corporate Liability 169 4.1 Strict Liability 4.1.1 Introduction 4.1.2 Strict v Absolute Liability 4.1.3 The Statutory Context: The Presumption of Mens Rea 172 4.1.4 The Exceptions to Mens Rea 180 4.1.5 Reverse-Onus Due Diligence Defences 192 4.1.6 Strict Liability under the ECHR 193 4.17 Evaluation: Arguments and against Strict Liability 196 4.2 Corporate Liability 199 What is a Corporation? 199 4.2.2 Vicarious Liability 200 4.2.3 Direct Corporate Liability 4.2.4 Evaluation 213 Chapter 5 Secondary Participation: Parties to a Crime 21? 5.1 Definition of Parties 219 5.2 Conditions for Liability 219 5.2.1 Actus Reus Rea 5.3 The Doctrine Joint Enterprise 233 5.3.1 Definition 233 5.3.2 Where goes beyond the joint enterprise to commit a collateral offence 239 5.3.3 A's offence will betoss P the scope of joint enterprise by a fundamentally different act 243 5.3.4 Criticisms of joint enterprise 255
5.4 Liability can be P 5.4.1 Liability can be Higher 260 5.4.2 Accessories and Justificatory Defences 261 5.5 Defences to Secondary Participation: Withdrawal from a Joint Enterprise 262 5.5.1 Planned There must be Timely, Unequivocal Communication of Withdrawal where Practical and Reasonable 263 5.5.2 Spontaneous Enterprises: Withdrawal without Communication may be Effective 264 5.5.3 Joint Enterprise Going beyond the Agreed Plan 265 5.5.4 Reform of Withdrawal 265 5.6 Can Victims be Accessories? 266 Reform 26? Murder 26? 5.8 Evaluation 269 Chapter 6 Homicide 1: Murder 271 6.1 Actus Reus 275 6.1.1 Unlawful Killing 275 6.1.2 Killing and Causation 276 6.1.3 A Human Being 276 6.1.4 Under the Queen's Peace 282 6.1.5 The 'Death Within a Year and a Day' Rule No Longer Applies 282 6.2 Rea 283 6.2.1 Background: Malice Aforethought 283 6.2.2 Criticisms of Intention 285 6.2.3 Intention to Commit Harm 285 6.3 The Sentence for Murder 28? 6.4 Criticism 288 6.5 Reform 289 Chapter 7 Homicide 2: Voluntary and Involuntary Manslaughter 294 7.1 Voluntary Manslaughter 295 Introduction to Voluntary Manslaughter 295 Diminished Responsibility 296 of Control 310 Suicide Pacts: The Third Partial Defence to Murder Involuntary Unintentional Killings Introduction 338 7.2.2 Manslaughter by Gross Negligence 339 7.2.3 Reckless Manslaughter 352 7.2.4 Unlawful and Dangerous Act (Constructive) Manslaughter 353 Offences 369 7.3.1 Causing Death by Dangerous Driving 369 7.3.2 Death Inconsiderate Driving 370 Infanticide 370 Infant and Child Killing 371
Chapter 8 Defences of Incapacity and Mental Conditions 375 8.1 Insanity 8.1.1 Introduction 8.1.2 The Relationship between Insanity, Automatism and Diminished Responsibility 380 8.1.3 Insanity at Trial 380 8.1.4 The Test for Insanity: The M'Naghten Rules 381 8.1.5 Burden of Proof 391 The Verdict and Disposal Provisions 392 8.17 Criticisms of Insanity 392 8.1.8 Reform 394 8.2 Automatism 395 8.2.1 Introduction 395 8.2.2 Definition 395 8.2.3 Burden of Proof 396 8.2.4 External Causes of Involuntary Action 396 8.2.5 Self-induced Automatism is no Defence 8.2.6 Automatism Requires Total Destruction of Voluntary in Driving Cases 402 Criticisms of the Defence 402 8.2.8 Reform 404 8.3 Intoxication 404 8.3.1 Introduction 8.3.2 Intoxication is not a 'Defence' but a Denial of MR 405 8.3.3 Voluntary Intoxication: The Rule 406 8.3.4 Crimes of Basic and Specific Intent 408 8.3.5 Majewski 411 8.3.6 Dutch Courage 412 8.37 Involuntary Intoxication 413 Dangerous Drugs 416 Voluntary Intoxication and Defences: Drunken Mistake 420 Majewski in Common Jurisdictions 425 8.3.11 Reform 426 8.4 Infancy 42? 8.4.1 The Age Criminal Responsibility: Doli Incapax 42? Criticism: Was ft Right to Abolish the Presumption? 429 Innocent Agents 430 Rape 430 Chapter 9 General 434 9.1 Duress and Duress of Circumstances 43? 9.1.1 Introduction 43? 9.1.2 Test for Duress and Duress of Circumstances 438 9.1.3 Limitations on the Defence: Voluntary Association with Criminals: Ft v Hasan 450 9.1.4 Limitations on the Murder, Attempted Murder and Treason 454 9.1.5 Duress of Circumstances 461 9.1.6 Reform 466
9.2 Necessity 46? 9.2.1 Introduction 46? 9.2.2 The Test for Necessity 46? 9.2.3 Medical Cases 468 9.2.4 Non-medical Cases: Self-help and Direct Action 4?6 9.2.5 Reform 479 9.3 Public and Private Defence 480 9.3.1 Introduction 480 9.3.2 The Necessity for Force: A Subjective Test 483 9.3.3 The Degree of Force must be Reasonable 497 9.3.4 Lethal Force and the R 501 9.3.5 Reform 505 9.4 Mistake 9.4.1 Introduction 507 9.4.2 Relevant Mistakes 9.4.3 Mistake and Strict Liability 509 9.4.4 Mistake and Offences of Negligence 509 9.4.5 Irrelevant Mistakes 509 Chapter 10 Non-fatal Offences against the Person 513 10.1 Assault (referred 516 Definition 516 10.1.2 Actus Reus 51? 10.1.3 Rea 525 Battery 525 10.2.1 Definition 526 10.2.2 Actus Reus 526 10.2.3 Mens Rea of Assault and Battery 10.3 Aggravated Assaults: Actual Bodily Harm, s4? 529 Definition 529 Actus Reus 530 10.3.3 Rea 532 10.4 Malicious Wounding GBH,s20 1861 533 Definition 533 Actus Reus 534 10.4.3 Rea 537 Causing Grievous Bodily with S18 1861 539 10.5.1 Definition 539 Actus Reus 540 Rea 540 10.6 Defences to Assault: Consent 541 10.6.1 The Public Interest 542 'Public Interest Exceptions' where consent can operate a defence to minor harm 542 10.6.3 Consent induced by fraud 554 Capacity to consent 563
Defences to Assault: Lawful Chastisement 564 107.1 Parents 564 107.2 Teachers 565 Racially and Religiously Aggravated Assaults 565 10.8.1 Introduction: Racist Incidents 565 10.8.2 Racial and Religious Aggravated Offences 565 10.8.3 Section 28 Crime and Disorder Act 1998 566 10.8.4 Racial/Religious Hostility 56? 10.8.5 Section 28( l)(b): Racial/Religious Motivation 568 10.8.6 Section 28(4): Group' 569 10.9 The Protection from Harassment Act 5?1 10.9.1 Definition Actus Reus 10.9.3 Mens Rea 10.10 Reform Offences Against the Person 10.10.2 Consent Chapter 11 Sexual Offences 579 n 11.1 The Sexual Offences 2003 581 11.2 Rape 582 11.2.1 Social Context 583 11.2.2 Definition Rape 583 Actus Reus 11.2.4 Mens Rea 11.2.5 Marital Rape 609 11.2.6 Why is Rape so Controversial? The Justice Gap 610 11.27 Rape Theory 615 11.3 Assault by Penetration 616 11.4 Sexual Assault 617 11.4.1 Section 618 11.5 Causing Sexual Activity without Consent 620 Chapter 12 Property Offences 1 623 12.1 Theft 625 12.1.1 Introduction 625 12.1.2 Actus Reus 626 12.1.3 Rea 660 12.2 Robbery 12.2.1 Introduction Actus Reus 12.2.3 Rea 681 12.3 Handling 682 12.3.1 Introduction 683 12.3.2 Actus Reus 683 12.3.3 Rea 688
Chapter 13 Property Offences 2: Fraud and Making off Without Payment 693 13.1 Fraud 695 13.1.1 The Fraud Act 2006 695 13.1.2 Section 2: Fraud by False Representation 696 13.1.3 Section 3: Fraud by Failing to Disclose Information 13.1.4 Section 4: Fraud by Abuse of Position 703 13.1.5 Section 11: Obtaining Services Dishonestly 709 13.2 Making Without Payment 13.2.1 Actus Reus 13.2.2 Rea Chapter 14 Property Offences 3 o 14.1 Burglary 14.1.1 Introduction 14.1.2 Actus Both Offences 14.1.3 Rea 728 14.1.4 Aggravated Burglary 729 14.2 Blackmail 14.2.1 Introduction 730 14.2.2 Actus Reus 14.2.3 Rea?36 14.3 Criminal Damage 14.3.1 Introduction 14.3.2 Actus Reus 738 14.3.3 Rea 14.3.4 Racially or Religiously Aggravated Criminal Damage 14.3.5 Criminal Damage with Intent or Recklessness as to Endangering Life 14.3.6 Arson Chapter 15 Inchoate Offences: Attempt, Conspiracy and Assisting and Encouraging under The Serious Crime Act 2007 15.1 Attempt 15.1.1 Definition 15.1.2 Actus Reus 15.1.3 Rea 15.1.4 Impossibility 15.1.5 Reform 15.2 Conspiracy 15.2.1 Introduction 15.2.2 Actus Reus 15.2.3 Impossibility 782 15.2.4 Conspiracy to Defraud 782 15.2.5 Conspiracy to Corrupt Public Morals and Conspiracy to Outrage Public Decency 784 15.2.6 Reform
15.3 The Serious Crime Act 200?: Encouragement and Assistance?89 15.3.1 Introduction?89 15.3.2 Problems of Incitement 15.3.3 Section 44: Intending to Assist or Encourage?90 15.3.4 Section 45: Assisting or Encouraging Believing an Offence will be Committed?91 15.3.5 Section 46: Encouraging or Assisting Offences Believing one or more will be Committed?92 15.3.6 Defences 15.37 Conclusion?9? n o