Authoritarianism in the Middle East Introduction to Middle East Politics: Change, Continuity, Conflict, and Cooperation
Overview Understanding Authoritarianism The Varieties of Authoritarianism Authoritarianism in the Middle East Measuring Authoritarianism The How and Why of Authoritarianism The Mechanics of Authoritarian Rule Republics and Monarchies, Formal and Informal Participation, Patron-Client Relationships, The Social Contract in the Middle East, Populist Politics and Single-Party Systems, The Rentier State, Coercion and the Security Apparatus, and Personality Cults Examples of Authoritarian Rule Republican Authoritarianism in Syria (1970-2000), Absolute Monarchy in Saudi Arabia (1953-1982), Military-Backed Totalitarianism in Iraq (1979-1990), and Hybrid Regime in Turkey (1950-1997)
Understanding Authoritarianism Political systems with limited, not responsible, political pluralism, without elaborate and guiding ideology, but with distinctive mentalities, without extensive nor intensive political mobilisation, except at some points in their development, and in which a leader or occasionally a small group exercises power within formally ill-defined limits but actually quite predictable ones (Linz, 2000: 159) Varieties of authoritarian rule Liberalised Autocracy (Brumberg, 2002), Electoral Authoritarianism (Schedler, 2006), Illiberal Democracies (Zakaria, 1997), Hybrid Regimes (Diamond, 2002) The trademark mixture of guided pluralism, controlled elections, and selective repression in Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, Algeria, and Kuwait is not just a survival strategy adopted by authoritarian regimes, but rather a type of political system whose institutions, rules, and logic defy any linear model of democratisation (Brumberg, 2002: 56)
Authoritarianism in the Middle East The Authoritarian Exception in the Middle East? The Third Wave of global democratisation through the 1970s-1990s with the Middle East seemingly resistant to these trends Freedom House Rankings of MENA States Free Partly Free Not Free 2012 1 4 13 2002 1 3 14 1992 1 8 9 1982 1 8 10 1973 2 3 14 Problems with the Freedom House metrics Should we ask how authoritarianism functions rather than why authoritarianism persists?
Source: Freedom House
The Mechanics of Authoritarian Rule Republics and Monarchies The role of ideology and tradition in maintaining elite control Formal and Informal Participation Working both inside and outside of formal political institutions Patron-Client Relationships The use of state resources and access to power, money, and services as a means of control The Social Contract in the Middle East State-led planning, security, employment, etc Populist Politics and Single-Party Systems Popular mobilisation and the use of symbols and threats The Rentier State No taxation therefore no representation Coercion and the Security Apparatus No constitutional/institutional constraints on state behaviour Personality Cults Rituals, symbols, and the personalisation of authority
Country Head of State Parliament Constitution Parties Legal System Algeria President Yes (bicameral, both elected) 1976 Civil/Islamic Law Bahrain King Yes (bicameral, upper appointed) 2002 Yes ( Islamic/Civil Law Egypt President Yes (bicameral, both elected) 2011 Yes Civil/Islamic Law Iran Supreme Leader Yes (unicameral, elected) 1979 Yes ( Islamic Law Iraq President Yes (unicameral, elected) 2005 Yes Civil/Islamic Law Israel President Yes (unicameral, elected) No Yes Civil/Religious Law Jordan King Yes (bicameral, upper appointed) 1952 Yes ( Civil/Islamic Law Kuwait Emir Yes (unicameral, mixed) 1962 No Civil/Islamic law Lebanon President Yes (unicameral, elected/quotas) 1926 Yes Civil/Religious Law Libya N/A Transitional 2011 (draft) N/A N/A Morocco King Yes (bicameral, upper appointed) 1972 Civil/Islamic Law Oman Emir Yes (bicameral, upper appointed) No No Civil/Islamic Law Qatar Emir Yes (unicameral, mixed) 2005 No Civil/Islamic Law Saudi Arabia King Yes (unicameral, appointed) No No Islamic Law Sudan President Yes (bicameral, mixed) 2005 (draft) Islamic/Civil Law Syria President Yes (unicameral, mixed) 1973 Yes ( Civil/Islamic Law Tunisia President Yes (unicameral, elected) 1959 Yes Civil/Islamic Law Turkey President Yes (unicameral, elected) 1982 Civil Law UAE Emir Yes (unicameral, appointed) 1971 No Islamic/Civil Law Yemen President Yes (bicameral, upper appointed) 1991 Islamic/Civil Law
Examples of Authoritarian Rule Republican Authoritarianism in Syria (1970-2000) 1982 Hama uprising, occupation of Lebanon, conflict with Israel, sectarian politics, civil law code, the colonial legacy Absolute Monarchy in Saudi Arabia (1953-1982) The politics of oil, religious legitimation and monarchical authority, the use of regional and global influence, pro-western foreign policy Military-Backed Totalitarianism in Iraq (1979-1990) Radical ideology, ruthless coercion, exploitation of sectarian and ethnic politics, patronage and clientelism Hybrid Regime in Turkey (1950-1997) Limits on the parliamentary system, the role of the Kemalist constitution and the military, domestic insurgency and pro-western foreign policy