BIG QUESTION: WHAT CAUSED THE COLD WAR? The fact that the United States and the Soviet Union successfully cooperated in defeating the Axis Powers did not necessarily mean that the two countries would continue to get along in the postwar world. After all, the two were organized on radically different principles democratic capitalism in the former, totalitarian socialism in the latter. By early 1945 it was clear that they would emerge as the world's two "superpowers," but it was also evident that they had conflicting visions for what that postwar world should look like. A number of issues divided U.S. and Soviet policy makers, but two loomed particularly large in 1945 46: the future of Germany and the future of Eastern Europe. As a result of these controversies the chances of continued cooperation between the superpowers seemed bleak. Q1 - Why did wartime cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union collapse in 1945 46? Doc A Source: Senator Harry S. Truman to a newspaper reporter, June 1941 If we see that Germany is winning, we ought to help Russia and if Russia is winning we out to help Germany and that way let them kill as many as possible. Doc B Source: The US Ambassador to the USSR to Secretary of State Cordell Hull, August 10, 1943 The absence of a second front prepare the ground for a strong Soviet hand in the field of foreign policy. To the extent that people believe that the Soviet Union carried the major burden of winning the war and that the United States and Great Britain withheld assistance which they could have given, people will be more inclined to support a claim that the Soviet Union should have the greatest voice in determining the peace. Note: Read C-G all at once, then analyze Doc C Source: Joseph Stalin, February 6, 1945 Prime Minister Churchill has said that for Great Britain the question of Poland is a question of honor. For Russia it is not a question of honor, but security During the last 30 years, our German enemy has passed through this corridor twice. Doc D - Source: The Yalta Conference, February 1945 (United States/FDR, Great Britain/Churchill, USSR/Stalin) To foster the conditions in which the liberated people may exercise these rights, the three governments will jointly assist the people in any European liberated state or former Axis state in Europe where, in their judgment conditions require, (a) to establish conditions of internal peace; (b) to carry out emergency relief measures for the relief of distressed peoples; (c) to form interim governmental authorities broadly representative of all democratic elements in the population and pledged to the earliest possible establishment through free elections of Governments responsive to the will of the people; and (d) to facilitate where necessary the holding of such elections. Doc E Source: Potsdam Conference, July 1945 (United States/Truman, Great Britain/Atlee, USSR/Stalin) In accordance with the Agreement on Control Machinery in Germany, supreme authority in Germany is exercised, on instructions from their respective Governments, by the Commanders-in-Chief of the armed forces of the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the French Republic, each in his own zone of occupation, and also jointly, in matters affecting Germany as a whole, in their capacity as members of the Control Council.
Germany After WW2 Berlin After WW2 Doc F- Source: First Meeting of the Council of Foreign Ministers (US, UK, USSR), September/October 1945) I should say a few words about the Soviet Delegation's disappointment with the failure of Great Britain and the United States to recognize the Bulgarian and Rumanian Governments. The thought apparently exists in their mind that our government objects to these governments because they are friendly to the Soviet Union and that our unwillingness to recognize these governments is a manifestation of unfriendliness to the Soviet Union. There could be no greater misconception of our attitude. I was at Yalta. The Yalta declaration on the liberated and ex-satellite countries was based on a proposal submitted by President Roosevelt. Under it the Allied Powers, including the Soviet Union, assumed the responsibility of concerting their policies to assist in the establishment of interim governments broadly representative of all important democratic elements in the population and pledged to the earliest possible establishment through free elections of governments responsive to the will of the people. That pledge cannot be fulfilled in countries where freedom of speech and of assembly are denied. Europe Divided by the Iron Curtain Eastern Europe communist countries dominated by the USSR Western Europe democratic, capitalist countries Germany is split in two
Doc G Source: David Low cartoon in London Evening Standard, March 1948 Q2 - What was "containment" and how was it applied in 1947 48? Doc A - Memorandum from Clark Clifford to President Truman, American Relations with the Soviet Union, September 24, 1946 As long as the Soviet Government maintains its present foreign policy, based upon the theory of an ultimate struggle between Communism and Capitalism, the United States must assume that the U.S.S.R. might fight at any time for the twofold purpose of expanding the territory under communist control and weakening its potential capitalist opponents. The Soviet Union was able to flow into the political vacuum of the Balkans, Eastern Europe, the Near East, Manchuria and Korea because no other nation was both willing and able to prevent it. Soviet leaders were encouraged by easy success and they are now preparing to take over new areas in the same way. The main deterrent to Soviet attack on the United States, or to attack on areas of the world which are vital to our security, will be the military power of this country. It must be made apparent to the Soviet Government that our strength will be sufficient to repel any attack and sufficient to defeat the U.S.S.R. decisively if a war should start. The prospect of defeat is the only sure means of deterring the Soviet Union... In addition to maintaining our own strength, the United States should support and assist all democratic countries which are in any way menaced or endangered by the U.S.S.R.
Doc B Source: Excerpts from X (George Kennan, US diplomat & Soviet expert), The Sources of Soviet Conduct, Foreign Affairs, July 1947 It must continue to regard the Soviet Union as a rival, not a partner, in the political arena. It must continue to expect that Soviet policies will reflect no abstract love of peace and stability, no real faith in the possibility of a permanent happy coexistence of the Socialist and capitalist worlds, but rather a cautious, persistent pressure toward the disruption and, weakening of all rival influence and rival power. Balanced against this are the facts that Russia, as opposed to the western world in general, is still by far the weaker party, that Soviet policy is highly flexible, and that Soviet society may well contain deficiencies which will eventually weaken its own total potential. This would of itself warrant the United States entering with reasonable confidence upon a policy of firm containment, designed to confront the Russians with unalterable counter-force at every point where they show signs of encroaching upon he interests of a peaceful and stable world. Doc C Source: Excerpts from Harry S. Truman s Truman Doctrine address, which he delivered to Congress on March 12, 1947 The gravity of the situation which confronts the world today necessitates my appearance before a joint session of the Congress. The foreign policy and the national security of this country are involved... The very existence of the Greek state is today threatened by the terrorist activities of several thousand armed men, led by Communists, who defy the Government s authority at a number of points, particularly along the northern boundaries. Meanwhile, the Greek Government is unable to cope with the situation. The Greek Army is small and poorly equipped. It needs supplies and equipment if it is to restore the authority of the Government throughout Greek territory. Greece must have assistance if it is to become a self-supporting and self-respecting democracy. The United States must supply that assistance. We have already extended to Greece certain types of relief and economic aid but these are inadequate. There is no other country to which democratic Greece can turn. Greece s neighbor, Turkey, also deserves our attention. The future of Turkey as an independent and economically sound State is clearly no less important to the freedom-loving peoples of the world than the future of Greece. I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures. I believe that we must assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in their own way. I believe that our help should be primarily through economic and financial aid which is essential to economic stability and orderly political processes... I therefore ask the Congress to provide authority for assistance to Greece and Turkey in the amount of $400,000,000 for the period ending June 30, 1948. In requesting these funds, l have taken into consideration the maximum amount of relief assistance which would be furnished to Greece out of the $350,000,000 which I recently requested that the Congress authorize for the prevention of starvation and suffering in countries devastated by the war. Outcome: Congress approved of Truman s request and the money was given to Greece and Turkey who successfully fought off the communists.
Doc D Source: From Speech by George C. Marshall, June 15, 1947 (Marshall Plan) I need not tell you gentlemen that the world situation is very serious. That must be apparent to all intelligent people. I think one difficulty is that the problem is one of such enormous complexity that the very mass of facts presented to the public by press and radio make it exceedingly difficult for the man in the street to reach a clear appraisement of the situation. Furthermore, the people of this country are distant from the troubled areas of the earth and it is hard for them to comprehend the plight and consequent reactions of the long-suffering peoples, and the effect of those reactions on their governments in connection with our efforts to promote peace in the world. In considering the requirements for the rehabilitation of Europe, the physical loss of life, the visible destruction of cities, factories, mines, and railroads was correctly estimated, but it has become obvious during recent months that this visible destruction was probably less serious than the dislocation of the entire fabric of European economy. For the past 10 years conditions have been highly abnormal. The truth of the matter is that Europe's requirements for the next three or four years of foreign food and other essential products principally from America are so much greater than her present ability to pay that she must have substantial additional help or face economic, social, and political deterioration of a very grave character. It is logical that the United States should do whatever it is able to do to assist in the return of normal economic health in the world, without which there can be no political stability and no assured peace. Our policy is directed not against any country or doctrine but against hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos. Its purpose should be the revival of a working economy in the world so as to permit the emergence of political and social conditions in which free institutions can exist Furthermore, governments, political parties, or groups which seek to perpetuate human misery in order to profit therefrom politically or otherwise will encounter the opposition of the United States. Doc E - Source: The Washington Post, January 1949
Q3 How and why did the United States formally commit itself to the defense of Europe? Background: By the end of 1947 the United States had implemented a strategy of containing the Soviet Union, and part of this strategy involved moving forward with the creation of an independent Germany. Ever since the end of World War II negotiations had been ongoing regarding the fate of Germany, with the Soviet Union refusing to consider any plan that would involve a restored Germany aligned with the West. From the perspective of the United States and its Allies, however, the continuing division of Germany into four zones of occupation was standing in the way of Europe's economic recovery. Therefore, in February 1948 the United States and Britain announced that they were merging their zones and issuing a common currency for both. Stalin perceived this act as an attempt to restore Germany without Soviet consent, and he sought to retaliate. In April, Red Army troops in the Soviet occupation zone began interfering with traffic between the British and American zones in Germany and their corresponding sectors of Berlin, which were entirely within the Soviet zone. Two months later, when France announced that it was merging its zone with that of the British and Americans, Stalin ordered the complete stoppage of all traffic between West Berlin and Western Germany. This left a civilian population of two million, as well as substantial numbers of British, French, and American troops, cut off from any source of food or fuel. Doc A - Telegram, dated June 25, 1948, by Alfred M. Bingham, et al. to President Harry S. Truman RUSSIAN EFFORTS TO DRIVE WESTERN POWERS FROM BERLIN ARE A CRUCIAL CHALLENGE TO AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY. SURRENDER WOULD DELIVER TO RUSSIAN VENGEANCE TWO MILLION GERMANS WHO HAVE DEFIED COMMUNIST TOTALITARIANISM. THERE ARE DISTURBING RUMORS OF PLANS TO EVACUATE BERLIN BECAUSE OF RUSSIAN BLOCKADEAGAINST GERMAN CIVILIAN SUPPLIES. ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES FOR THE GERMAN POPULATION CAN BE DELIVERED BY AIR AND IF NECESSARY MUST BE AT WHATEVER COST. WE URGE YOU TO MAKE THIS COUNTRY S POSITION UNMISTAKABLE BY DECLARING THAT UNDER ALL CIRCUMSTANCES SHORT OF WAR WE WILL REMAIN IN BERLIN AND MAINTAIN SUPPLIES FOR THE CIVILIAN POPULATION. NOTHING LESS CAN ADEQUATELY REASSURE DEMOCRATIC FORCES IN GERMANY AND ELSEWHERE THAT THIS COUNTRY WILL NOT DESERT THEM. Doc B - Top Secret report, dated July 28, 1948, titled "U.S. Military Courses of Action with Respect to the Situation in Berlin" Careful study of results to date, together with calculations of Berlin supply requirements and maximum air transport capabilities, indicates that minimum requirements can be met by air transport... The daily cost of air transport supply operations is already very great and will naturally increase with augmentation of tonnage. In addition, it should be borne in mind that even augmented air lift can include little provision for clothing, maintenance material, raw material, or industrial supplies, which means that conditions in the western sectors of Berlin including unemployment, morale, and stamina of the population will steadily worsen even though food, medical, military, coal, gasoline, and Diesel supplies remain adequate for maintaining an existence level for the population. Finally, it is always possible that the Soviets may devise and employ means, by interference in the air corridor, of vitiating or stopping air transport operations... Outcome: Over the next eleven months thousands of tons of food, coal, and clothing were brought into the city in what became known as the Berlin Airlift. Stalin, essentially faced with a decision either to back down or to order Soviet aircraft to shoot down these planes (and thus risk war), opted for the former, and the blockade was lifted in May 1949
Doc C North Atlantic Treaty Organization, April 4, 1949 The Parties to this Treaty reaffirm their faith in the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations and their desire to live in peace with all peoples and all governments. They are determined to safeguard the freedom, common heritage and civilization of their peoples, founded on the principles of democracy, individual liberty and the rule of law. They seek to promote stability and well-being in the North Atlantic area. They are resolved to unite their efforts for collective defense and for the preservation of peace and security. They therefore agree to this North Atlantic Treaty ARTICLE 5 The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all, and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually, and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. Doc D Speech by President Harry S. Truman, April 12, 1949 This treaty is an expression of the desire of the people of the United States for peace and security, for the continuing opportunity to live and work in freedom. The security and welfare of each member of the community depend upon the security and welfare of all. None of us alone can achieve economic prosperity or military security. None of us alone can assure the continuance of freedom. Together, our joint strength is of tremendous significance to the future of free men in every part of the world. For this treaty is clear evidence that differences in language and in economic and political systems are no real bar to the effective association of nations devoted to the great principles of human freedom and justice. I believe that the North Atlantic treaty is such a step, based on the realities of the situation we face today and framed within the terms of the United Nations charter and Constitution of the United States. In the conviction that the North Atlantic treaty is a great advance toward fulfillment of the unconquerable will of the people of the United States to achieve a just and enduring peace, I request the advice and consent of the Senate to its ratification