A Brief History of Modern India 2017 Fully Revised and Enlarged Edition
Editor s s Note Several books have been written by justly famous authors and historians of India s struggle for freedom which is the major strand in any consideration of the history of Modern India. But these volumes are extensive and in-depth studies, and often suffer from an overemphasis on one aspect at the cost of another. The present small effort, however, brings together various aspects of the turbulent period (from the arrival of the Europeans on Indian soil and the establishment of British rule in India to the day India won independence and the early years of freedom) in a systematic and succinct manner: major and important details and milestones are effectively discussed while several relevant but little known details are also highlighted. It is not just the mainstream freedom struggle that has been considered; the disparate efforts small but significant of several groups have also been discussed. The political and socio-economic developments that have influenced the growth of modern India have been dealt with in independent chapters. The endeavour has been to present complex and truly vast material in a brief and easy-to-understand manner, and we hope our readers find the book of use and interest. The present revised edition includes chapters on the advent of the Europeans in India and the British consolidation of power in India besides incorporating additional information under several chapters. There are also chapters on the challenges that a newly independent nation faced in the wake of a brutal partition. The Nehruvian era is also 2
briefly discussed. A survey of personalities associated with various movements, peasant and tribal movements, tables and charts are also given for quick reference. Suggestions for improvement are welcome. Kalpana Rajaram 3
CONTENTS Unit I SOURCES AND APPROACHES 1 Chapter 1 Sources for the History of Modern India 3 Archival Materials 4 Central Government Archives 4 Archives of the State Governments 5 Archives of Three Presidencies 6 Archives of Other European Powers 6 Judicial Records 7 Published Archives 7 Private Archives 8 Foreign Repositories 8 Biographies, Memoirs and Travel Accounts 9 Newspapers and Journals 10 Oral Evidence 11 Creative Literature 11 Painting 12 Summary 14 Chapter 2 Major Approaches to the History of Modern India 15 Colonial Approach/ Historiography 16 Nationalist Historiography/ Approach 16 Marxist Historiography/ Approach 17 Subaltern Approach/ Historiography 18 Communalist Approach 19 Cambridge School 20 Liberal and Neo-Liberal Interpretations 20 Feminist Historiography 20 Summary 21 4
Unit II ADVENT OF EUROPEANS AND 23 CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISH POWER IN INDIA Chapter 3 Advent of the Europeans in India 25 The Portuguese in India 25 The Quest for and Discovery of a 25 Sea Route to India From Trading to Ruling 27 Portuguese State 31 Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals 34 Decline of the Portuguese 36 Significance of the Portuguese 37 The Dutch 39 Dutch Settlements 39 Anglo-Dutch Rivalry 40 Decline of the Dutch in India 41 The English 41 Charter of Queen Elizabeth I 41 Progress of the English Company 42 The French 46 Foundation of French Centres in India 46 The Anglo-French Struggle for Supremacy: the 48 Carnatic Wars Causes for the English Success and the 55 French Failure The Danes 58 Why the English Succeeded against 58 Other European Powers Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies 58 Naval Superiority 59 Industrial Revolution 59 Military Skill and Discipline 59 Stable Government 59 5
Lesser Zeal for Religion 60 Use of Debt Market 60 Summary 61 Boxes Portuguese Rise and Fall 37 Formative Years of the East India Company 45 Rise and Fall of Dupleix in India 51 About the Goods in Trade Initially 56 Chapter 4 India on the Eve of British Conquest 64 Challenges before the Mughals 64 External Challenges 64 Weak Rulers after Aurangzeb An 67 Internal Challenge Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire 69 Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars 70 Jagirdari Crisis 70 Rise of Regional Aspirations 73 Economic and Administrative Problems 74 Rise of Regional States 75 Survey of Regional Kingdoms 75 Nature and Limitations of Regional States 79 Socio-Economic Conditions 80 Agriculture 80 Trade and Industry 80 Status of Education 82 Societal Set-up 83 Development in Art, Architecture and Culture 85 Summary 86 Boxes Why Many Empire-shaking Battles at Panipat? 66 Causes of the Mughals Downfall in a Nutshell 74 Chapter 5 Expansion and Consolidation of British 88 Power in India 6
The British Imperial History 88 Was the British Conquest Accidental or Intentional? 88 When did the British Period Begin in India? 90 Causes of British Success in India 91 Superior Arms, Military and Strategy 91 Better Military Discipline and Regular Salary 92 Civil Discipline and Fair Selection System 92 Brilliant Leadership and Support of Second 92 Line Leaders Strong Financial Backup 93 Nationalist Pride 93 British Conquest of Bengal 93 Bengal on the Eve of British Conquest 93 Alivardi Khan and the English 94 Challenges Before Siraj-ud-daula 95 The Battle of Plassey 95 Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760 97 The Battle of Buxar 98 The Treaty of Allahabad 100 Dual Government in Bengal (1765-72) 101 Mysore s Resistance to the Company 102 The Wodeyar / Mysore Dynasty 102 Rise of Haidar Ali 102 First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) 103 Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84) 104 Third Anglo-Mysore War 105 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War 106 Mysore After Tipu 109 Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy 109 Rise of the Marathas 109 Entry of the English into Maratha Politics 110 First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82) 110 Second Anglo Maratha War (1803-1805) 113 Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19) 114 Why the Marathas Lost 116 Conquest of Sindh 118 7
Rise of Talpuras Amirs 118 Gradual Ascendancy over Sindh 119 Criticisms of the Conquest of Sindh 122 Conquest of Punjab 123 Consolidation of Punjab under the Sikhs 123 Ranjit Singh and the English 124 Punjab After Ranjit Singh 125 First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) 126 Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) 128 Significance of the Anglo-Sikh Wars 129 Extension of British Paramountcy Through 129 Administrative Policy The Policy of Ring-Fence 130 Subsidiary Alliance 130 Doctrine of Lapse 134 Relations of British India with Neighbouring 135 Countries Anglo-Bhutanese Relations 136 Anglo-Nepalese Relations 136 Anglo-Burmese Relations 137 Anglo-Tibetan Relations 138 Anglo-Afghan Relations 139 John Lawrence and the Policy of 141 Masterly Inactivity Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve 142 British India and the North-West Frontier 143 Summary 144 Boxes Robert Clive 99 Estimate of Tipu Sultan 107 Annexation of Awadh 135 Unit III RISING RESENTMENT AGAINST 147 COMPANY RULE Chapter 6 8
People s Resistance Against British Before 1857 149 People s Resistance: Meaning 149 Genesis of People s Resistance 150 Causative Factors for People s Uprisings 150 Civil Uprisings 151 Major Causes of Civil Uprisings 151 General Characteristics of Civil Uprisings 152 Important Civil Uprisings 152 Peasant Movements with Religious Overtones 166 Tribal Revolts 168 Different Causes for Mainland and 168 North-Eastern Tribal Revolts Characteristics of Tribal Revolts 169 Important Tribal Movements of Mainland 170 Tribal Movements of the North-East 176 Sepoy Mutinies 177 Causes 177 Important Mutinies 178 Weaknesses of People s Uprisings 179 Summary 179 Boxes Tribal Movements: Period, Region, Causes at a Glance 174 North-East Frontier Tribal Movements: Year, 176 Region, Major Causes Chapter 7 The Revolt of 1857 183 Simmering Discontent 183 The 1857 Revolt: the Major Causes 184 Economic Causes 184 Political Causes 185 Administrative Causes 186 Socio-Religious Causes 186 Influence of Outside Events 187 Discontent Among Sepoys 187 Beginning and Spread of the Revolt 188 9
The Spark 188 Starts at Meerut 188 Choice of Bahadur Shah as Symbolic Head 189 Civilians Join 190 Storm Centres and Leaders of the Revolt 190 Suppression of the Revolt 193 Why the Revolt Failed 194 All-India participation was absent 194 All classes did not join 195 Poor Arms and Equipment 195 Uncoordinated and Poorly Organised 195 No Unified Ideology 196 Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor 196 Nature of the Revolt 197 Consequences 200 Significance of the Revolt 204 Summary 205 Box White Mutiny 202 Unit IV REFORM MOVEMENTS 207 Chapter 8 Socio-Religious Reform Movements: 209 General Features Factors Giving Rise to Desire for Reform 209 Impact of British Rule 209 Social Conditions Ripe for Reform 210 Opposition to Western Culture 211 New Awareness among Enlightened Indians 211 Social and Ideological Bases of Reform 212 Middle Class Base 212 The Intellectual Criteria 213 Two Streams 215 Direction of Social Reform 215 Fight for Betterment of Position of Women 216 10
Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation 221 Summary 226 Chapter 9 A General Survey of Socio-Cultural 228 Reform Movements Socio-Cultural Reform Movements and their Leaders 228 Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj 228 Prarthana Samaj 234 Young Bengal Movement and Henry 235 Vivian Derozio Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar 236 Balshastri Jambhekar 236 Paramahansa Mandali 237 Satyashodhak Samaj and Jyotiba or Jyotirao Phule 237 Gopalhari Deshmukh Lokahitawadi 238 Gopal Ganesh Agarkar 238 The Servants of India Society 239 Social Service League 239 The Ramakrishna Movement and 240 Swami Vivekananda Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj 244 Seva Sadan 246 Dev Samaj 247 Dharma Sabha 247 Bharat Dharma Mahamandala 247 Radhaswami Movement 248 Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) 248 Movement Vokkaliga Sangha 249 Justice Movement 249 Self-Respect Movement 249 Temple Entry Movement 250 Indian Social Conference 250 Wahabi/Walliullah Movement 251 Titu Mir s Movement 251 11
Faraizi Movement 252 Ahmadiyya Movement 252 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement 253 The Deoband School (Darul Uloom) 255 Parsi Reform Movements 256 Sikh Reform Movements 256 The Theosophical Movement 257 Significance of Reform Movements 258 Positive Aspects 258 Negative Aspects 260 Unit V THE STRUGGLE BEGINS 263 Chapter 10 Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India 265 Factors in the Growth of Modern Nationalism 265 Understanding of Contradictions in Indian 265 and Colonial Interests Political, Administrative and Economic Unification of the Country 266 Western Thought and Education 267 Role of Press and Literature 267 Rediscovery of India s Past 268 Progressive Character of Socio-religious 268 Reform Movements Rise of Middle Class Intelligentsia 268 Impact of Contemporary Movements in the World 269 Reactionary Policies and Racial 269 Arrogance of Rulers Political Associations Before the Indian 269 National Congress Political Associations in Bengal 270 Political Associations in Bombay 272 Political Associations in Madras 272 Pre-Congress Campaigns 272 Summary 273 12
Chapter 11 Indian National Congress: Foundation and the 274 Moderate Phase Foundation of Indian National Congress 274 Was It a Safety Valve? 275 Aims and Objectives of the Congress 276 Era of Modernates (1885-1905) 276 Important Leaders 276 Moderate Approach 276 Contributions of Moderate Nationalists 277 Economic Critique of British Imperialism 277 Constitutional Reforms and Propaganda in 278 Legislature Campaign for General Administrative Reforms 280 Protection of Civil Rights 281 An Evaluation of the Early Nationalists 282 Role of Masses 282 Attitude of the Government 283 Summary 284 Box Indian Councils Act 1892 279 Unit VI NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905-1918) 285 Chapter 12 Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1909) 287 Growth of Militant Nationalism 287 Why Militant Nationalism Grew 287 The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement 291 Partition of Bengal to Divide People 291 Anti-Partition Campaign Under 292 Moderates (1903-05) The Congress s Position 293 The Movement under Extremist Leadership 294 The Extremist Programme 294 13
New Forms of Struggle 295 Extent of Mass Participation 298 All India Aspect 299 Annulment of Partition 300 Evaluation of the Swadeshi Movement 300 The Movement Fizzles Out 300 Movement a Turning Point 301 The Surat Split 303 Run-up to Surat 304 Split Takes Place 305 Government Repression 306 The Government Strategy 307 Morley-Minto Reforms 1909 308 The Reforms 308 Evaluation 310 Summary 311 Box Differences between Moderates and Extremists 302 Chapter 13 First Phase of Revolutionary Activities 315 (1907-1917) Why the Surge of Revolutionary Activities 315 The Revolutionary Programme 316 A Survey of Revolutionary Activities 316 Bengal 316 Maharashtra 319 Punjab 320 Revolutionary Activities Abroad 321 Decline 325 Summary 326 Chapter 14 First World War and Nationalist Response 328 Home Rule League Movement 329 Factors Leading to the Movement 329 The Leagues 330 14
The Home Rule League Programme 331 Government Attitude 332 Why the Agitation Faded Out by 1919 332 Positive Gains 333 Lucknow Session of the Indian National 333 Congress (1916) Readmission of Extremists to Congress 333 Lucknow Pact between Congress and 334 Muslim League Montagu s Statement of August 1917 337 Indian Objections 337 Summary 338 Unit VII ERA OF MASS NATIONALISM BEGINS 339 (1919-1939) Chapter 15 Emergence of Gandhi 341 Why Nationalist Resurgence Now 341 Post-War Economic Hardships 341 Expectations of Political Gains for Cooperation 342 in the War Nationalist Disillusionment with Imperialism 342 Worldwide Impact of Russian Revolution (November 7, 1917) 343 Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and Government 343 of India Act, 1919 Main Features 343 Drawbacks 346 Congress s Reaction 346 Making of Gandhi 347 Early Career and Experiments with 347 Truth in South Africa Gandhi s Experience in South Africa 351 Gandhi s Technique of Satyagraha 351 Gandhi in India 352 15
Champaran Satyagraha (1917) First Civil 353 Disobedience Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) First Hunger Strike 354 Kheda Satyagraha (1918) First Non-Cooperation 355 Gains from Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda 356 Rowlatt Act, Satyagraha, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre 356 The Rowlatt Act 356 Satyagraha Against the Rowlatt Act 357 First Mass Strike Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919) 358 The Hunter Committee of Inquiry 361 Congress View 363 Summary 364 Box Tolstoy Farm 350 Chapter 16 Non-Cooperation Movement and 366 Khilafat Aandolan Background 366 The Khilafat Issue 367 Development of the Khalifat-Non-Cooperation 368 Programme Congress Stand on Khilafat Question 368 Muslim League Support to Congress 369 The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement 369 Spread of the Movement 371 People s Response 373 Government Response 374 The Last Phase of the Movement 374 Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement 376 Evaluation of Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movement 377 Summary 378 Chapter 17 Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, 379 Revolutionary Activities and Other New Forces 16
Swarajists and No-Changers 379 Genesis of Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party 379 Swarajists Arguments 380 No-Changers Arguments 380 Agree to Disagree 381 The Swarajist Manifesto for Elections 381 Gandhi s Attitude 382 Swarajist Activity in Councils 382 Constructive Work by No-Changers 384 Emergence of New Forces: Socialistic Ideas, 385 Youth Power, Trade Unionism Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas 385 Activism of Indian Youth 387 Peasants Agitations 387 Growth of Trade Unionism 387 Caste Movements 387 Revolutionary Activity with a Turn towards 388 Socialism Revolutionary Activity During the 1920s 388 Why Attraction for Revolutionary Activity 388 after Non-Cooperation Movement Major Influences 389 In Punjab-United Provinces-Bihar 389 In Bengal 391 Official Reaction 394 Ideological Rethinking 394 Summary 396 Chapter 18 Simon Commission and the Nehru Report 398 Appointment of the Indian Statutory Commission 398 Indian Response 399 Police Repression 401 Impact of Appointment of Simon Commission 401 on the National Movement The Simon Commission Recommendations 402 17
Nehru Report 403 Main Recommendations 403 The Muslim and Hindu Communal Responses 404 Amendments Proposed by Jinnah 406 Nehru Report Found Unsatisfactory 407 Summary 407 Box Dr Ambedkar and the Simon Commission 400 Chapter 19 Civil Disobedience Movement and Round 408 Table Conferences The Run-up to Civil Disobedience Movement 408 Calcutta Session of Congress 408 Political Activity during 1929 409 Irwin s Declaration (October 31, 1929) 409 Delhi Manifesto 410 Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj 410 January 26, 1930: the Independence Pledge 412 Civil Disobedience Movement the Salt Satyagraha 413 and Other Upsurges Gandhi s Eleven Demands 413 Why Salt was Chosen as the Important Theme 414 Dandi March (March 12-April 6, 1930) 414 Spread of Salt Disobedience 415 Impact of Agitation 420 Extent of Mass Participation 420 Government Response Efforts for Truce 421 Gandhi-Irwin Pact 422 Evaluation of Civil Disobedience Movement 423 Karachi Congress Session 1931 425 Congress Resolutions at Karachi 425 The Round Table Conferences 426 First Round Table Conference 426 Second Round Table Conference 428 Third Round Table Conference 431 18
Civil Disobedience Resumed 432 During Truce Period (March-December 1931) 432 Changed Government Attitude After Second RTC 432 Government Action 433 Popular Response 433 Communal Award and Poona Pact 434 Main Provisions of the Communal Award 435 Congress Stand 436 Gandhi s Response 436 Poona Pact 437 Impact of Poona Pact on Dalits 437 Gandhi s Harijan Campaign and thoughts on Caste 438 Ideological Differences and Similarities between 441 Gandhi and Ambedkar Summary 445 Chapter 20 Debates on the Future Strategy after Civil 448 Disobedience Movement The First Stage Debate 448 Nehru s Vision 449 Nehru s Opposition to Struggle- Truce-Struggle Strategy 450 Finally, Yes to Council Entry 450 Government of India Act, 1935 451 Main Features 451 Evaluation of the Act 454 Nationalists Response 455 The Second Stage Debate 455 Divided Opinion 456 Gandhi s Position 457 Congress Manifesto for Elections 457 Congress Performance 458 Summary 458 Chapter 21 Congress Rule in Provinces 459 19
Gandhi s Advice 459 Work under Congress Ministries 459 Civil Liberties 460 Agrarian Reforms 460 Attitude Towards Labour 461 Social Welfare Reforms 462 Evaluation 462 Summary 464 Unit VIII TOWARDS FREEDOM AND 465 PARTITION 1939-1947 Chapter 22 Nationalist Response in the Wake of 467 World War II Congress Crisis on Method of Struggle 467 Haripura and Tripuri Sessions: Subhash 467 Bose s Views Gandhi and Bose: Ideological Differences 472 Non-Violence versus Militant Approach 473 Means and Ends 473 Form of Government 474 Militarism 477 Ideas on Economy 478 Religion 480 Caste and Untouchability 482 Women 482 Education 485 Second World War and Nationalistic Response 486 Congress Offer to Viceroy 487 CWC Meeting at Wardha 487 Government Attitude and Congress 488 Ministries Resignation Government s Hidden Agenda 489 August Offer 492 20
Responses 493 Evaluation 493 Individual Satyagrahas 493 Gandhi Designates Nehru as his Successor 494 Cripps Mission 495 Why Cripps Mission was Sent 495 Main Proposals 496 Departures from the Past and Implications 496 Why Cripps Mission Failed 497 Summary 499 Chapter 23 Quit India Movement, Demand for Pakistan, 501 and the INA Quit India Movement 501 Why Start a Struggle Now 501 The Quit India Resolution 502 Gandhi s General Instructions to 502 Different Sections Spread of the Movement 503 Extent of Mass Participation 505 Government Repression 506 Estimate 506 Gandhi Fasts 507 Famine of 1943 507 Rajagopalachari Formula 508 The Formula 508 Objections 508 Desai-Liaqat Pact 509 Wavell Plan 509 Why the Government was Keen on a Solution Now 509 The Plan 510 Muslim League s Stand 510 Congress Stand 511 Wavell s Mistake 511 The Indian National Army and Subhash Bose 511 21
Origin and First Phase of the Indian National Army 512 Summary 516 Chapter 24 Post-War National Scenario 518 Two Strands of National Upsurge 518 Why a Change in Government s Attitude 519 Congress Election Campaign and INA Trials 520 Election Campaign for Nationalistic Aims 520 Congress Support for INA Prisoners 521 The INA Agitation A Landmark on Many Counts 521 Three Upsurges Winter of 1945-46 522 Three-Stage Pattern 523 Evaluation of Potential and Impact of the 524 Three Upsurges Congress Strategy 525 Election Results 526 Performance of the Congress 526 Muslim League s Performance 526 Significant Features of Elections 527 The Cabinet Mission 527 Why British Withdrawal Seemed Imminent Now 527 On the Eve of Cabinet Mission Plan 529 Cabinet Mission Arrives 529 Cabinet Mission Plan Main Points 529 Different Interpretations of the Grouping Clause 531 Main Objections 531 Acceptance and Rejection 532 Communal Holocaust and the Interim Government 533 Changed Government Priorities 533 Interim Government 533 Obstructionist Approach and Ulterior 535 Motives of League Birth and Spread of Communalism in India 535 Characteristic Features of Indian Communalism 536 Reasons for Growth of Communalism 537 22
Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory 543 Summary 547 Box Wavell s Breakdown Plan 532 Chapter 25 Independence with Partition 550 Attlee s Statement of February 20, 1947 550 Main Points of Attlee s Statement 550 Why a Date Fixed by Government for Withdrawal 551 Congress Stand 551 Independence and Partition 551 Mountbatten as the Viceroy 552 Mountbatten Plan, June 3, 1947 552 Indian Independence Act 555 Problems of Early withdrawal 556 Integration of States 556 Inevitability of Partition 557 Why Congress Accepted Partition 557 Gandhi s Helplessness 559 Summary 560 Box Plan Balkan 555 Unit IX INDIA UNDER BRITISH RULE: 561 GOVERNANCE AND OTHER ASPECTS Chapter 26 Constitutional, Administrative and Judicial 563 Developments Constitutional Development between 1773 and 1858 563 The Regulating Act of 1773 564 Pitt s India Act of 1784 565 The Act of 1786 565 The Charter Act of 1793 566 The Charter Act of 1813 566 23
The Charter Act of 1833 567 The Charter Act of 1853 568 The Act for Better Government of India, 1858 569 Developments after 1858 till Independence 569 Indian Councils Act, 1861 569 Indian Councils Act, 1892 570 Indian Councils Act, 1909 571 Government of India Act, 1919 571 Simon Commission 573 Government of India Act, 1935 574 Evolution of Civil Services in India 576 Cornwallis Role 576 Wellesley s Role 577 Charter Act of 1853 577 Indian Civil Service Act, 1861 577 Statutory Civil Service 578 Congress Demand and Aitchison Committee 578 Montford Reforms (1919) 578 Lee Commission (1924) 579 Evaluation of Civil Services under British Rule 579 Evolution of Police System in Modern India 580 Military Under the British 582 Development of Judiciary in British India 584 Reforms under Warren Hastings (1772-1785) 585 Reforms under Cornwallis (1786-1793) 585 Separation of Powers Reforms under William Bentinck (1828-1833) 586 Later Developments 587 Evaluation 587 Major Changes in Administrative Structure after 1857 588 Genesis of Administrative Changes: 588 New Stage of Colonialism Administration: Central, Provincial, Local 589 Central Government 589 Provincial Government 590 Local Bodies 591 24
Chapter 27 Survey of British Policies in India 597 Administrative Policies 597 Divide and Rule 597 Hostility Towards Educated Indians 597 Attitude Towards the Zamindars 598 Attitude Towards Social Reforms 598 Underdeveloped Social Services 598 Labour Legislations 599 Restrictions on Freedom of the Press 600 White Racism 601 British Social and Cultural Policy in India 601 Characteristics of New Thought 602 Schools of Thought 602 Indian Renaissance 603 Dilemma Before the Government 603 Role of Christian Missionaries 604 British Retreat 604 British Policy Towards Princely States 604 British Foreign Policy in India 605 Chapter 28 Economic Impact of British Rule in India 607 Deindustrialisation Ruin of Artisans and 607 Handicraftsmen One-Way Free Trade 607 No Steps towards Modern Industrialisation 608 Ruralisation 608 Impoverishment of Peasantry 609 Emergence of Intermediaries, Absentee Landlordism, 610 Ruin of Old Zamindars Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture 610 Famine and Poverty 610 Commercialisation of Indian Agriculture 611 Destruction of Industry and Late Development 612 of Modern Industry 25
Nationalist Critique of Colonial Economy 614 British Policies Making India Poor 615 Growth of Trade and Railways to Help Britain 617 One-Way Free Trade and Tariff Policy 617 Effect of Economic Drain 618 Economic Issue a Stimulant to National Unrest 619 Stages of Colonialism in India 619 First Stage 619 Second Stage 620 Third Stage 622 Summary 623 Box Economic Drain 615 Chapter 29 Development of Indian Press 625 Early Regulations 625 Struggle by Early Nationalists to Secure 626 Press Freedom Vernacular Press Act, 1878 628 During and After the First World War 631 During the Second World War 631 Chapter 30 Development of Education 632 Under Company Rule 632 A Humble beginning by Charter Act of 1813 633 Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy 633 Lord Macaulay s Minute (1835) 634 Efforts of Thomson 634 Wood s Despatch (1854) 635 After the Crown Took Over 636 Hunter Education Commission (1882-83) 636 Indian Universities Act, 1904 637 Government Resolution on Education 638 Policy 1913 Saddler University Commission (1917-19) 638 26
Education Under Dyarchy 639 Hartog Committee (1929) 639 Sergeant Plan of Education 640 Development of Vernacular Education 641 Development of Technical Education 642 Evaluation of British Policy on Education 642 Box Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937) 640 Chapter 31 Peasant Movements 1857-1947 644 Peasantry Under Colonialism 644 A Survey of Early Peasant Movements 645 Indigo Revolt (1859-60) 645 Pabna Agrarian Leagues 646 Deccan Riots 646 Changed Nature of Peasant Movements after 1857 647 Weaknesses 648 Later Movements 648 The Kisan Sabha Movement 648 Eka Movement 649 Mappila Revolt 650 Bardoli Satyagraha 650 The All India Kisan Congress/Sabha 652 Under Congress Ministries 652 Peasant Activity in Provinces 652 During the War 653 Post-War Phase 654 Balance-Sheet of Peasant Movements 656 Chapter 32 The Movement of the Working Class 657 Early Efforts 658 During Swadeshi Upsurge 658 During the First World War and After 659 The AITUC 659 The Trade Union Act, 1926 660 27
Late 1920s 660 Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) 661 Under Congress Ministries 661 During and After the Second World War 661 After Independence 662 Unit X INDEPENDENCE AND AFTER 663 Chapter 33 Challenges Before the New-born Nation 665 First Day of Independent India 665 First Cabinet After Independence 665 Radcliffe s Boundary Award and the Communal Riots 667 Challenges before the Boundary Commission 668 Regions Most Affected by Riots 669 Challenges Associated with Division of Resources 671 Division of Civil Government 671 Division of Finances 671 Division of Defence Personnel and Equipment 672 Assassination of Gandhi 672 Rehabilitation and Resettlement of Refugees 673 East Punjab 674 Bengal 674 Delhi Pact on Minorities 675 Centres of Refugee Settlements in India 676 Communists and Independence 676 Why Communists were Skeptical about 677 Independence? Shift from Antagonistic Strategy to 677 Constitutional Democracy Chapter 34 The Indian States 679 I. The Company s Struggle for Equality from a Position of Subordination (1740-1765) 679 28
II. Policy of Ring Fence (1765-1813) 680 III. Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813-1857) 680 IV. Policy of Subordinate Union (1857-1935) 681 Curzon s Approach 682 Post-1905 682 V. Policy of Equal Federation (1935-1947): 683 A Non-Starter VI. Integration and Merger 683 Plebiscite and Army Action 684 Gradual Integration 685 Chapter 35 Making of the Constitution for India 686 Background 686 Constituent Assembly 689 Formation 689 Two Constituent Assemblies: India and Pakistan 691 Evaluation of the Assembly for India 691 After Independence 692 Work : Committees and Consensus 693 Box Drafting Committee 693 Chapter 36 The Evolution of Nationalist Foreign Policy 696 1880 to First World War: Anti-Imperialism and 697 Pan-Asian Feeling World War I 698 1920s and 1930s Identifying with Socialists 698 After 1936 Anti-Fascism 699 After Independence 699 Panchsheel and Non-Alignment 700 Boxes Historical Perspective on Panchsheel 701 Five Criteria of Non-alignment 703 29
Chapter 37 First General Elections 705 Groundwork for the Elections 705 The Election Commission 705 Legislation for Polls 706 Independent India Goes to the Polls for the 707 First Time Challenges 707 Parties in the Fray for the Lok Sabha 709 Conduct of Elections 710 Results 711 Box First General Elections: Winners 711 Chapter 38 Developments under Nehru s Leadership (1947-64) 713 Political Developments 714 Debate Over National Language 714 Linguistic Reorganisation of the States 715 Growth of other Political Parties 718 An Undemocratic Deed 723 Concept of Planning for Economic Development 724 Progress of Science and Technology 725 Social Developments 726 Developments in Education 726 Social Change Under Nehru 727 Foreign Policy 728 Relations with Neighbours 729 India and Pakistan 729 India and China 730 India and Nepal 732 India and Bhutan 732 India and Sri Lanka 732 APPENDICES 733 1. Personalities Associated with Specific Movements 735 30
Swadeshi Movement 735 Non-cooperation Movement 739 Civil Disobedience Movement 743 Quit India Movement 747 2. Governors-General and Viceroys of India: 750 Significant Events in their Rule 3. Indian National Congress Annual Sessions 760 4. Socio-Religious Reform Movements 765 (late 18th to mid-20th century) 5. Famous Trials of the Nationalist Period 772 6. Caste Movements 774 7. Peasant Movements 776 8. Newspapers and Journals 779 31