GA IV (SPECPOL) The Question of Stewardship of Natural Resources in Conflict OVERVIEW The question of stewardship of natural resources in conflict extends far beyond the concept of sustainability. Mismanagement and illegal exploitation of specific conflict resources are inextricably linked to fuelling civil and interstate armed conflicts in many regions of the world. Natural resources in conflict, or conflict resources, are natural resources (e.g. diamonds, oil and natural gas, water, timber) which are often systematically exploited and illegitimately trafficked. Many parties are involved in this illegal trafficking, including smugglers, arms and drug dealers, multinational corporations, and even corrupt local government officials. The trafficking in conflict resources results firstly in wealth that can be mismanaged and used for funding and escalating conflict or insurgency by funding arms purchases. It also leads to human rights violations committed upon innocent people who are either forced into the production process or conscripted into armed conflict, in direct violation of international humanitarian law. Indirectly, illegitimate trafficking disrupts the export and production of legitimate local goods, influencing economic stability. On the other hand, responsible, lawful management of a state's resources facilitates peacemaking and economic development. Stewardship, then, refers to the responsible use and regulation of conflict resources by state governments, often with the cooperation of other multinational organisations or other states. The United Nations' goal is to develop possible solutions for ensuring responsible stewardship and international cooperation while still allowing states to maintain their sovereignty over resources. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Conflict resources such as diamonds (termed "blood diamonds" and popularised by Leonardo DiCaprio), minerals, and timber tend to be a problem in underdeveloped states which rely on a resource plentiful in their state but scarce in others. This makes the exploitation of the resources highly lucrative internationally and can lead to corruption, a disparate concentration of wealth, and a lack of balanced economic investment along with armed conflict. Economists call this the "resource curse", and it is common in sub- Saharan Africa. Conflicts have resulted from the exploitation of diamonds, minerals, or timber (or combinations of all three) in: Angola, Cambodia, Liberia, Sierra Leone, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Cote D'Ivoire.
Those such as international arms merchants and insurgent groups profit from the sale of conflict resources, not the state's people. Warring factions within a state often exploit its resources to gain power. Sustaining the conflict then leads to sustaining the profitable exploitation of resources and the cycle continues. A very concrete example is the nation of Angola, characterized by its tremendous diamond and petroleum reserves whose profits have not reached the people due to a state of perpetual conflict for the past thirtyfive years. The situation was created in part when diamond magnate De Beers showed interest in national diamonds irrespective of their seller. This led to a violent fight for the control of resources between many rebel groups, looking to fund the expansion of their political power, and the state, seeking to solidify its own position. Results have been devastating. The country has been left covered with tens of millions of land mines and substantial potential resource wealth and economic development has been wasted through conflict incited by rebel groups and the state. As the world population grows it is becoming more evident that problems surrounding stewardship of resources will only grow. Water, often transcending borders and having ambiguous international divisions, has been in contention in numerous circumstances. Controlling water has been used as a tool of political leverage in numerous African conflicts, like in Darfur. Water resources have been the target of terrorist attacks in past; Iraqi pipelines faced numerous sabotage attempts since the US-led invasion. Egypt and Ethiopia have shared heavy tensions for decades concerning jurisdiction and building rights on the Nile. Given that it can be both a basic need and a resource for transportation and a source of electrical power, conflicts over water are frequent in our changing world. Oil and natural gas, as well, has led to conflict in places like Russia, the Balkans and Central Asia, with many nations vying for jurisdiction over resources since the collapse of the Soviet Union. Former republics are waging vicious legal battles over their ownership, with Russia using diplomatic and trade influence to try to coerce neighboring countries to renounce their efforts. The Middle East has traditionally been an example of oil resources being surrounded by oppression, human rights abuses and conflict. Indeed, even the relatively recent question of Iraq directly concerns the security of Iraqi oil resources in a time of strife. There has been much international discussion about conflict resources. Article 1 of the Declaration on the Right to Development reaffirms the basic human right to development, a right which includes full sovereignty over natural resources, popular participation and equality of opportunity in development, and the responsibility of natural resource development to create more favourable conditions in other areas (civil, political, economic, social, cultural). In 1993 the World Conference on Human Rights stated that a lack of development in a state "may not be invoked to justify the abridgement of internationally recognised human rights".
Lastly, consumption and climate change are leading to increasing resource scarcity, especially of non-renewable resources such as oil and water. If processes for responsible stewardship are not implemented, resource disputes are likely to arise in new regions of the world, and perhaps even globally. POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS States are most at risk of conflict based on resources if their economy is dependent upon a single exploitable resource and if low income, economic problems, or ethnic dominance/minority repression is present. As a preventative tool, stability could be gained by addressing these problems, diversifying economically, and emphasising that the international community avoid buying illegitimate products. Such stability could facilitate responsible stewardship by avoiding the eruption of a conflict. Experts suggest that "responsible, just and economically productive resource management" by African governments is necessary. Profits from resources must be directed towards sustainable economic development and social programs. Since governments often lack the infrastructure and administrative capacity to supervise conflict resources, aid, guidance, or even intervention from other nations may be required. International efforts such as the United Nations Global Compact, the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, and the Kimberley Process for blood diamonds are promising, though in order to be truly effective they require the voluntary participation of nations and corporations. Unfortunately, evidence indicates the Kimberley Process has not yet achieved its goal: an estimated $30 to $160 billion in blood diamonds are still smuggled out of Sierra Leone annually. Additionally there is a call for multinationals to be accountable and refrain from participating in suspected illegitimate activity. Developed states may ask that large corporations publish records of payments for resources in order to ensure legitimate origins. Unfortunately, all forms of accountability require the voluntary help of involved groups, which is often not given. There is no way to force a state or a corporation to participate in the Kimberley Process or publish payment records. The same problem is true for economic sanctions, which attempt to close off markets for conflict resources and therefore end their trafficking. Sanctions are only effective if they are enforced completely, and members of the UN have claimed that the strength of sanctions is lacking. Sanctions pose other problems: unless they are specifically targeted against individuals, they often negatively affect civilians more than those involved in the conflict.
It would seem that to be effective, a plan would require the cooperation of the states in conflict, other states which trade the resource, and the international community under the UN. More importantly, it would require full commitment from all members. POINTS OF CONTENTION It has been proposed that in order to truly deal with the problem, the UN must first develop an official definition of conflict resources which could be the foundation for mandates allowing intervention in resource-fuelled conflicts and for prosecution of those involved. The main issues at hand involve responsibility for change. What is the most effective policy to stop illegitimate trafficking and strengthen responsible stewardship? Who should be involved in these processes? Who should hold administrative power and how much of it? What of sovereignty? Is it the developed nations or the developing nations who bear the responsibility for implementing solutions? States tend to differ in policy opinion based on where they are located in the chain of production and consumption of these resources. States who have a problem with conflict resources, particularly those in sub-saharan Africa (listed earlier), often take the position that the maintenance of state sovereignty is paramount. (This is also true of nations controlling resources which could come into scarcity and conflict in the future, such as China, Pakistan, and Russia.) States involved in conflict also stress the responsibility of the United Nations and wealthier nations who purchase conflict resources to maintain effective, vigilant policies to stop the trafficking of conflict resources at the market end. On the other hand, wealthier states (the European Union, other Western nations) believe accountable, transparent management of conflict resources and the profits from conflict resources are vital: the state governments must take responsibility for their resources. Clear, effective, and enforced mandates for sanctions, international cooperative processes, and regional efforts intervening in conflict situations are also important. The developed, politically stable African states realise that instability from poor stewardship of conflict resources negatively impact the overall economic and political stability of the region; thus they are also interested in peacefully ending conflict.
RESEARCH SUGGESTIONS http://www.globalwitness.org/pages/en/definition_of_conflict_resources.html A definition of natural resources in conflict. http://www.un.org/news/press/docs/2007/sc9060.doc.htm A UN press release about a Security Council discussion of the question of stewardship of natural resources in conflict. Contains very helpful summaries of actual delegate positions. http://www.swisspeace.ch/typo3/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/publications_by_staff/unstu dy_short-june-2008.pdf A report discussing the link between the environment and conflict, the UN's role in preventing these conflicts, and possible measures for conflict prevention. http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/natres/docsindex.htm Useful UN reports, resolutions, press releases, and NGO reports, articles, and other critical discussion about conflict resources. Often detailing specific case studies. http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/docs/minindx.htm Links to information about specific conflict resources, with separate pages for each. http://www.wbcsd.org/plugins/docsearch/details.asp?type=docdet&objectid=mji0mzi An analysis of conflict resources in Africa, with suggestions for change. http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr2/pdf/wwdr2_ch_1.pdf UNDP report on a specific resource: water.