SUB Hamburg B/97044 Routledge History of International Organizations From 1815 to the present day Bob Reinalda Routledge Taylor & Francis Group LONDON AND NEW YORK
Contents List of figures xv Abbreviations xviii Introduction 1 Part 1:1815 - British hegemony and the invention of the multilateral conference plus follow-up conference: The Concert of Europe and the Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine 3 1 Emergence and evolution of international organizations 5 1.1 Do international organizations matter? 5 1.2 Political science views on the emergence and evolution of international organizations 10 2 1815: the British postwar institutional strategy and the Concert of Europe 17 2.1 The Congress of Vienna in 1814 15 and the transformation of European politics 11 2.2 The British postwar institutional strategy and multilateral diplomacy 20 2.3 The Concert of Europe as a collective security regime 24 3 The Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine and burgeoning free trade 28 3.1 The Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine (1815): freedom of navigation 28 3.2 The transition from mercantilism to free trade 30 3.3 The Zollverein (1834-71): concerted (free) trade policies and German unification 32
Part II: Transnational networks of citizens: From the anti-slavery movement in 1815 to the International Committee of the Red Cross of 1863 35 4 Citizens organizing transnationauy in support of slavery abolition and peace 37 4.1 The international movement advocating the abolition of slavery 3 7 4.2 The peace movement, its international congresses and the idea of arbitration 43 4.3 Democracy, women's equality and workers' rights as national themes 41 5 The International Red Cross made responsible for the Geneva Convention on Wounded Soldiers (1864) 51 5.1 The private International Red Cross initiative (1863) 51 5.2 Responsibility for monitoring the Geneva Convention on Wounded Soldiers (1864) 54 Part III: The creation of the Hague system: The arbitration movement and the 1899 and 1907 Peace Conferences in The Hague 57 6 Arbitration and international law as normative powers in international relations 59 6.1 The Alabama case and the Treaty of Washington on arbitration (1871) 59 6.2 The creation of two private institutes for international law in 1873 60 6.3 The Inter-Parliamentary Union (1889) favouring arbitration 62 6.4 The Washington conference on trade and arbitration in 1889 63 7 The 1899 and 1907 Peace Conferences in The Hague and the Hague system 65 7.1 The Hague Peace Conference on the law of war and arbitration (1899) 65 7.2 The establishment of the Permanent Court of Arbitration (1899) 68 1.3 The awarding of the Nobel Peace Prize since 1901 12 1.4 The Latin American states decide to join the Hague system (1901) 15 1.5 The second Hague Peace Conference of 1907 78 Part IV: Public International Unions 1865-1914: Institutionalization of conferences and the creation of continental markets in Europe and the Americas 83 8 Creation of the International Telegraph Union (1865) and the Universal Postal Union (1874) 85 8.1 The invention of the telegraph and the creation of the International Telegraph Union (1865) 85 8.2 The Universal Postal Union (1874) as an example for other international organizations 89 8.3 The relevance of the nineteenth-century public international unions 90 9 Standardization and intellectual property regulated internationally 96 9.1 Measurement of the Earth, the standard time and the international map of the world 96 9.2 Identical weights and measures all over the world 101 9.3 Protection of industrial intellectual property and copyright 102
10 Regulation of international shipping, railway and road traffic 107 10.1 The relevance of international river commissions: the Danube Commission of 1856 101 10.2 Sea-shipping regulations by governments 112 10.3 Sea-shipping regulations on a private basis 116 10.4 Cooperation in the fields of international railway and road connections 117 11 Public international unions and the creation of continental markets in Europe and the Americas 1860-1910 120 11.1 Free trade, customs tariffs, migration and capital export 120 11.2 The gold standard and monetary unions 124 11.3 Agricultural regulations 126 11.4 Public international unions and the creation of the European continental market 129 11.5 The Union of American Republics and the creation of the American continental market 131 Part V: The international foundation for the welfare state 1880-1914: How governments became involved in international labour legislation 137 12 International business around the end of the nineteenth century 139 12.1 International trusts, cartels and federations 139 12.2 Advocating an international chamber of commerce 1905 19 144 13 Rising international emancipation movements of workers and women 147 13.1 The socialist First International of 1864 as a spectre 147 13.2 The liberal International League for Peace and Freedom (1867) 149 13.3 Women joining forces internationally and actions against trafficking in women 150 13.4 International campaigning for women's suffrage 153 13.5 The national orientation of the Second International and international trade unions 156 14 International labour conventions (1906) and the foundation for the welfare state 162 14.1 How governments became involved in international labour regulation 162 14.2 An NGOfor international labour legislation (1900) and the 1906 labour conventions 166 14.3 Social protection against the consequences of free trade: the welfare state 169 14.4 International efforts to improve health and uplift morality 171 Part VI: Laying down the path of collective security: The First World War, the League of Nations founded (1919) and the interwar period 177 15 The First World War and the creation of the League of Nations (1919) 179 15.1 Liberal debates on a postwar League of Nations in the UK 179 15.2 The US involved in the war (1917) and Wilson's Fourteen Points (1918) 183
15.3 The postwar institutional strategy as a result of power negotiations (1919) 186 15.4 The League of Nations' Secretariat: an international organ rather than a principal's agent 190 15.5 Women gain access to the League of Nations: Article 7.3 193 15.6 The League of Nations as a universal organization 1919 46 196 15.7 The Permanent Court of International Justice 1920-46 200 16 The major powers and collective security in the interwar period 203 16.1 Temporary administration, conflict settlement and refugee support by the League of Nations 203 16.2 Disarmament efforts by the major powers and the League of Nations 208 16.3 Japan and Germany leave the League of Nations (1933) 214 16.4 The League of Nations imposes sanctions on Italy (1935) 217 16.5 Collective security paralysed 218 Part VII: Laying down the path of common economic endeavours: The International Labour Organization (1919) and the economic and social activities of the League of Nations 221 17 The normative workings of the International Labour Organization (1919) 223 11.1 The creation of the first specialized international agency 223 17.2 Albert Thomas's leadership of the ILO 228 17.3 The international labour code: ILO conventions and recommendations 232 17.4 The divided international trade union movement 236 18 The League of Nations' ongoing economic and social activities 243 18.1 The League of Nations' structures for economic and social activities 243 18.2 A faltering international economy and German reparation payments 1920-32 253 18.3 Regional cooperation as a protectionist solution to the crisis of the 1930s 259 18.4 The League's World Economic Conference (1933) and the Bruce Committee (1939) 264 Part VIII: American hegemony and the genesis and evolution of the United Nations system 269 19 Multilateral cooperation during the Second World War 271 19.1 The ILO flees to Montreal, the League of Nations' staff to Princeton (1940) 271 19.2 The Atlantic Charter (1941) and the first signs of the United Nations 273 19.3 The Bretton Woods conference on international monetary policy (1944) 278 19.4 The establishment of the United Nations as managed by the US (1943-45) 281 20 The United Nations: an improved security organization with economic coordination 289 20.1 Charter, member states and budget of the United Nations 289
20.2 The General Assembly as the primary organ of the United Nations 294 20.3 The Security Council and its permanent members 303 20.4 The Trusteeship Council as a continuation of the League of Nations' mandate system 306 20.5 The coordinating function of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) 308 20.6 The consultative status of non-governmental organizations at ECOSOC 316 20.7 The UN Secretariat and the secretary-general 319 21 The workings of the United Nations system 327 21.1 The International Court of Justice and the development of international law 321 21.2 Specialized international organizations as part of the UN system 333 21.3 The International Labour Organization and the transition to technical assistance 338 21.4 Freedom of association as a normative force in the East-West conflict 341 21.5 The observer status of intergovernmental organizations at the UN 344 Part IX: Collective security in a bipolar world 1945-80 347 22 Refugees, peacekeeping and Cold War at the United Nations 349 22.1 The UN refugee regime since 1943 349 22.2 How the UN developed to become a respected peacekeeper 353 22.3 The Cold War at the UN: East, West and non-aligned 356 23 Regional alliances in the 1940s and 1950s 361 23.1 US policy on Western European cooperation 361 23.2 From North Atlantic Treaty (1949) to NATO (1952) 364 23.3 The Warsaw Pact in Eastern Europe (1955) 368 23.4 Cooperation on security in the Western Hemisphere and Asia 310 24 Peaceful coexistence and nuclear weapons control at the United Nations 373 24.1 Nuclear weapons control: the IAEA (1957) and the Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) 313 24.2 Continuing nuclear weapons control and the UN Biological Weapons Convention (1912) 380 24.3 Limitation of arsenals and numbers of military personnel: SALT, MBFR and CSCE 383 24.4 Measures against aircraft hijackings and terrorism in the 1960s and 1910s 386 Part X: Economic cooperation in a bipolar world 1945-70 389 25 The troubled start of the Bretton Woods institutions IBRD and IMF and the GATT regime 391 25.1 The troubled start of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 391 25.2 The International Monetary Fund and unilateral US management 395 25.3 1941-48: no International Trade Organization, but GATT instead 399
26 Marshall Aid, Eastern European integration, Western European integration and the workings of the OECD 406 26.1 Marshall Aid and the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (1948) 406 26.2 Eastern European integration: the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (1949) 412 26.3 Western European integration: ECSC (1951), Treaties of Rome (1957) and EFT A (1960) 416 26.4 From OEEC to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (1961) 423 26.5 Ongoing and stagnating Western European integration 1960-80 427 27 The weakening of the Bretton Woods system and the emergence of the G7 (1975) 435 27.1 The weakening of the Bretton Woods system during the 1960s 435 27.2 The Trilateral Commission (1913) and its reflection on American hegemony 438 27.3 The emergence of the G7 (1975) and its consequences for the UN system 439 Part XI: Decolonization, the North-South divide and Third World experiences with global and regional international organizations 1960-80 443 28 Decolonization, anti-apartheid and the consequences of the Vietnam War 445 28.1 Decolonization and anti-apartheid as normative forces in international relations 445 28.2 The Vietnam War not a UN but a UNHCR concern 453 29 The United Nations Development Decade: North versus South during the 1960s 457 29.1 Multilateral development aid, the UNDP (1965) and regional development banks 457 29.2 The Third World view: dependency, UNCTAD (1964) and the Gil 463 29.3 Alternative strategies: collective self-reliance and the Asian Tigers 469 30 The creation of regional economic organizations in the Third World in the 1960s 473 30.1 Regional economic cooperation outside Europe 473 30.2 Regional economic organizations in Latin and Central America 414 30.3 The emergence of ASEAN (1967) 478 30.4 Regional organizations in Africa and the Arab world 480 31 The Third World struggle for a New International Economic Order (1974) 484 31.1 The UN Declaration on the New International Economic Order (1974) 484 31.2 The basic needs strategy of the IBRD and ILO as an alternative 488 31.3 Weak international codes of conduct for transnational corporations 491
Part XII: Development aid, environmental protection and human rights as normative powers: NGO pressure on governments through intergovernmental organizations 1960-80 497 32 NGOs and development aid, the UN International Women's Year (1975) and environmental protection 499 32.1 NGO contributions to multilateral development aid 499 32.2 The international women's movement and the UN International Women's Year (1975) 503 32.3 Consciousness-raising on environmental problems 512 32.4 The UN Conference on the Human Environment and the creation of UNEP (1972) 515 32.5 Protection of the natural and human environment through international conventions 517 33 Human rights as a normative power and the Amnesty International model 521 33.1 The realization of international human rights conventions at the UN 521 33.2 Monitoring the implementation of UN human rights conventions through reports 525 33.3 The UN Human Rights Conference in Tehran (1968) and the Amnesty International model 521 33.4 Reporting with a monitoring commission and a complaints procedure 528 33.5 Regional human rights conventions in Europe, the Americas and Africa 532 Part XIII: International organizations in the 1980s: The Cold War intensifies and neoliberalism replaces Keynesianism 539 34 US President Reagan intensifies the Cold War 541 34.1 The end of the 1970s, the end of the UN peacekeeping regime? 541 34.2 The US and the politicization of the United Nations 1911-85 545 34.3 US President Reagan intensifies the Cold War and puts financial pressure on the UN 541 35 Reagonomics, the debt crisis in the South and the structural adjustment programmes of the IMF 551 35.1 Reagonomics and the new relationship between the Gl, IMF and OECD 551 35.2 The Brandt Reports and the debt crisis in the South from 1982 553 35.3 The structural adjustment programmes of the IMF and IBRD and their consequences 555 35.4 From combating poverty to adjustment policy: the IBRD in trouble 559 35.5 Strengthening of the Gl and the surveillance role of the IMF (1985) 561 36 The fall of the Berlin wall (1989) and the end of the Cold War 564 36.1 The fall of the Berlin wall (1989) and the significance of the CSCE/OSCE 564 36.2 Abolition of the Warsaw Pact (1991) and the continued existence of NATO 569
36.3 Arms control, the OPCW (1997) and the comprehensive nuclear test ban 572 36.4 Internationalfinancialinstitutions and the transformation of communist states 575 Part XIV: The 1990s and new challenges for the United Nations as peacekeeper 583 37 A new world order and an agenda for peace? Hope and bitter failure for UN peacekeeping missions 585 37.1 Afghanistan (1988) and the Gulf War (1990-91): the return of the UN as peacekeeper 585 37.2 Towards a new world order? Ethnic wars and failing states 587 37.3 The disintegration of Yugoslavia and the Balkan Wars 1991 95: the UN sidelined 590 37.4 Humanitarian assistance and the failure of the US and UN in Somalia (1993) 592 31.5 Greater success in Mozambique, Cambodia and Haiti, but failure in Rwanda 1992-94 594 31.6 An agenda for peace (1992) and new generations of UN peacekeeping 591 31.1 Violence in Sierra Leone, Kosovo, East Timor and Congo 1998-2000 599 38 Efforts to maintain collective security: sanctions, NGOs and UN tribunals 604 38.1 UN sanctions policies in the 1990s 604 38.2 The increased role of NGOs in security after the end of the Cold War 608 38.3 War crimes, crimes against humanity and UN tribunals 615 38.4 The issue of humanitarian intervention and the responsibility to protect (R2P) 619 Part XV: Globalization in the 1990s: New challenges for the United Nations system as promoter of economic and social stability 623 39 Boosting free trade again: from GATT to World Trade Organization (1995) 625 39.1 Reagan's intervention in the deadlocked GATT: the Uruguay Round 1986-94 625 39.2 The World Trade Organization as the successor of GATT (1995) 630 39.3 The North-South divide within the WTO 636 39.4 WTO impact on the functioning of UNCTAD 639 39.5 Diminished importance and criticisms of UNDP: a matter of survival 641 39.6 The International Telecommunication Union's involvement with the Internet 643 40 The dominant free trade regime: environment and welfare state under pressure 646 40.1 Free trade versus environmental and social clauses: GATT and NAFTA 646 40.2 Protection of the ozone layer and the establishment of the IPCC (1988) 650 40.3 The UNCED Conference in Rio de Janeiro (1992) and its international conventions 653 xii
40.4 Full employment and the welfare state under pressure by Reagonomics 662 40.5 European unemployment: the 'American' solution (OECD, G7 and IMF) or the European? 665 40.6 The ILO in a comer: core labour standards as the way out 668 41 IMF, IBRD and WTO criticized by states and the anti-globalization movement 672 41.1 The Asian financial crisis (1997-98) and the clash between ASEAN and IMF 672 41.2 Washington Consensus, Good Governance and IMF mistakes during the Argentine crisis (2000) 676 41.3 Wolfensohn reorganizes the criticized IBRD (1997) 679 41.4 The Battle of Seattle (1999) and the criticisms by the 'anti'-and 'alter'-globalization movements 682 41.5 Consumer actions against transnational corporations 689 41.6 Principles for business: the UN Global Compact (1999) 692 Part XVI: Regional international organizations from the 1980s onwards 695 42 The Third World answer to globalization: continued and new regionalism 697 42.1 Continued and new regionalism in the Third World during the 1980s and 1990s 697 42.2 The creation of MERCOSUR (1991) and the Andean Community of Nations (1996) 700 42.3 Central American and Caribbean cooperation 104 42.4 The significance ofsaarc, ASEAN and APECfor Asian development 706 42.5 Continued and new regionalism in Africa 712 42.6 Economic cooperation in the Arab world and West Asia 719 43 From European Community to European Union (1993): deepening and enlargement 722 43.1 Continued European integration: the creation of the single market (1993) 722 43.2 The Maastricht Treaty on European Union (1992) 726 43.3 The establishment of the European Central Bank (1998) and the euro 728 43.4 Amending the Treaties and enlargement in Central Europe 730 Part XVII: Security and the international economy on the threshold of the twenty-first century 735 44 International organizations under pressure 737 44.1 Emergence of terrorism, 11 September 2001 and the invasion of Afghanistan 737 44.2 The US war in Iraq (2003) 740 44.3 The UN human rights regime after the end of the Cold War 744 44.4 Dilution of the nuclear non-proliferation regime 747 44.5 Weakening of the OSCE and cooling US Russia relations 749 xm
44.6 Lack of global economic coordination at the beginning of the twenty-first century 752 44.7 What happens to international organizations under pressure? 756 Appendix 1: Nation-states in the international system since 1815 (by continent, in chronologic order) and League of Nations and United Nations membership 759 Appendix 2: Groups of states (First, Second and Third World, G3 G77) 765 Literature 768 Index 782