Chapter 37: The End of Empire Chapter 38: A World Without Borders

Chapter 37: The End of Empire Chapter 38: A World Without Borders

New Nations in South & Southeast Asia India - Most nations during decolonization turn towards authoritarian regimes, India maintains its democracy despite challenges. Pakistan - War broke out in 1947 over the province of Kashmir. Pakistan turn towards US after loss, while India seek aid from Soviets. However, India played the non-aligned card. Southeast Asia: nationalist movements led to the independence of Indonesia (1949), Burma and the Malay Federation (1948), and the Philippines (1946)

The Struggle for Independence in Africa 1954-1962: VIOLENT revolt led to French withdrawal & an independent Algeria. Problems for Sub-Saharan Africa: arbitrarily drawn borders, over dependence on export crops, lack of national road & railroad networks, and overpopulation. GHANA: Kwame Nkrumah. REPUBLIC OF KENYA: Jomo Kenyatta. French colonies achieved independence between 1958 and 1960. RESULTS OF DECOLONIZATION: Race conflict between people of European descent & indigenous Africans - Particularly severe in the southern part of Africa 1948: APARTHEID in South Africa

The Middle East The redrawing of old colonial boundaries led to population resettlements. As the Arab states slowly gained independence, the struggle with Israel came to overshadow all Arab politics. 1947: United Nations partitioned Palestine into two states, one Jewish and one Arab. 1948: Israel declared its independence defeating Palestinian and other Arab forces. 1956 Suez Crisis: Egypt closed canal to Israel. Britain, France, & Israel invaded. US & USSR demand halt to fighting. 1967: Six-Day War, Israel captured Arab lands. Egypt lost the 23,500-square-mile Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip, Jordan lost the West Bank and East Jerusalem, and Syria lost the strategic Golan Heights.

OIL 1960: Arab states to form the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). OPEC embargoed (cut off access to oil) to the United States for their support of Israel during the Arab- Israeli war of 1972 and quadrupled oil prices in 1974.

Arab-Israeli Conflict Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), headed by Yasir Arafat, refused to recognize Israel & vowed to win back their homeland through the use of terrorism (e.g. highjack airplanes, murder of 11 Jewish athletes at the 1972 Olympics). Attempts by the west to resolve the conflict: Camp David (1978) & Oslo Accords (1993). Continuing issue today 1972 Munich Olympics 1978 Camp David Accords Sadat (Egypt), Carter (USA), Begin (Israel) 1993 Oslo Accords Rabin (Israel), Clinton (USA), Arafat (PLO)

The Green Revolution The Green Revolution produced food for the earth s growing population as it spread chemically and genetically enhanced forms of agriculture. More People? Need What? MORE FOOD New rice, corn & wheat varieties Improved farming techniques Increased food productivity & natural resource management

The Emergence of Environmental Concerns Movements throughout the world protested the inequality of environmental and economic consequences of global integration. The Cold War and the tremendous postwar economic recovery focused public and government attention on technological innovation and enormous industrial projects. Rachel Carson, warned that technologies and industrial growth were rapidly degrading the environment. The student protests of the late 1960s in the United States, France, Japan, and Mexico indicated a rising current of youth activism that focused attention on environmental problems. 1970: Earth Day

The Third World Groups and individuals opposed and promoted alternatives to the existing economic, political, and social orders. 1955: nonaligned movement or Third World Effort by the many new, poor, mostly non-european nations emerging from colonialism to gain more weight in the world by banding together. Nonalignment was primarily a way of extracting money and support from one or both of the superpowers. One example is the ability of the Egyptian leaders Nasser and Sadat to play the two superpowers against each other to get assistance in hydroelectric projects (Aswan Dam), arms, and loans from both sides.

Quest for Economic Freedom in Latin America Militaries and militarized states often responded to the proliferation of conflicts in ways that further intensified conflict. In Latin America, independence from European rule was achieved earlier, but American and European economic domination increased. MEXICO: persistent disparity between the rich and the poor, the urban and the rural. GUATEMALA: Government attempted to expropriate (confiscate, take) the property of large landowners, including the United Fruit Company 1954: U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) assisted military coup that removed President Arbenz from power and condemned Guatemala to decades of political instability and violence.

Argentina After 1930 Depression hurt Argentina almost as badly as it did Brazil. 1930: military coup initiated thirteen years of rule by generals and the oligarquia. In 1943, Colonel Juan Peron led another coup & established a government that modeled itself on Germany s Nazi regime. Peron & wife Eva Duarte Peron appealed to urban workers (descamisados, the shirtless ) 1946: elected president & established a populist dictatorship. Sponsored rapid industrialization and social welfare projects, (nearly bankrupting the country) 1952: His wife Eva ( Evita ) died 1952, He was overthrown in a military coup. Evita

Revolutions, Depressions, & Democratic Reform in Latin America Revolutionary left in Latin America versus United States (in a struggle to defeat communism). Brazil (1964): military dictatorship, death squads to eliminate opposition, and use of Brazilian Solution (tax & tariff policies to encourage industrialization through import substitution). Chile (1973): CIA-assisted coup overthrew socialist Allende government; Augusto Pinochet & the military government tortured and killed suspected political opponents.

Democratic Reform in Latin America Military dictatorships (Brazil, Chile, & Argentina) all ended between 1983 & 1990. By 2000, United States dominated Latin America more than it had been in 1975. (e.g. U.S. use of military force in Grenada in 1983 & Panama in 1989). United States influenced Latin American nations to reduce state involvement in the economy (called neo-liberalism in Latin America) Result: fewer government protections for local industries caused economic stress in some regions. Venezuela s President Hugo Chavez (elected 1998; died in 2013) began rolling back the neo-liberal reforms (state control of oil industry).

TODAY Although still vulnerable to strongman presidents, democracy has widely taken root across Latin America, the United Nations said in report in 2010. Today, in many countries in Latin America, the transformation from military rule and dictatorship to democracy in the 1980s and '90s has sealed a democratic tradition. The expectation of free and fair elections and that the democratically elected leader finish his or her term is resounding across the region.

Islamic Revolution in Iran USA & IRAN: American backed the corrupt government of Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi November 1979: Shah overthrown and replaced by Shi ite cleric, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Hostage Crisis: American embassy is overrun and 52 Americans are held hostage for 444 days Anti-western, conservative Islamic republic was established, but the United States was unable to do anything about it. Fall of 1980: Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded Iran. The United States supported Iran at first, but then in 1986 tilted toward Iraq. Iran Hostage Crisis: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a8bc1deybi4

USSR in Afghanistan SOVIET UNION & AFGHANISTAN: 1978: Soviet Union sent its army into Afghanistan in support a newly established communist regime fighting against a hodgepodge of local, religiously inspired guerilla bands that controlled much of the countryside. 1989: Soviet Union s struggle against the American-backed guerillas was $$$$ Soviet leaders withdrew their troops. (Beginning of the end for the Soviet Union) Left the rebel groups to fight with each other for control of Afghanistan. (Taliban wins)

The First Iraq War (formerly known as the Persian Gulf War) Saddam Hussein Dictator of Iraq 1980 attacked Iran in a bloody 8 year war 1990 invaded oil rich Kuwait The UN led by the US sent troops to Saudi Arabia to ensure that country was not invaded. The UN forces attacked the Iraqi forces and completely destroyed their army. Hussein was allowed to remain in power. Hussein attacked the Kurds in Northern Iraq in an attempt at genocide. USA Casualties: 382 deaths 467 wounded

Asian Transformation JAPAN: Economy grew at a faster rate than that of any other major developed country in the 1970s and 1980s & is still the world s 3 rd largest economy. Industrial economy received government assistance in the form of tariffs and import regulations that inhibited foreign competition. (close cooperation between government and industry) SOUTH KOREA: Imitated Japanese model (giant corporations led the way in developing heavy industries and consumer industries). HONG KONG & SINGAPORE (former British colonies): developed modern industrial and commercial economies. These nations together are known Asian Tigers

China Rejoins the World Economy At the end of the twentieth century, many governments encouraged free market economic policies and promoted economic liberalization. 1976: Mao dies 1978: New leader - Deng Xiaoping GOAL: Modernize China by reforming its economy (NOT its political system still communist.) Land Reform Limited Capitalism (private businesses) making Consumer Goods Foreign Investment allowed Science & Tech

Tiananmen Square & the Limits of Reform Groups and individuals opposed and promoted alternatives to the existing economic, political, and social orders. China encouraged economic reform but remained Communist. In 1989 college students demonstrated peacefully for personal freedom and democracy. When the students refused to leave army tanks fired on them killing hundreds. In response, Western leaders reduced trade for a brief time. China has become the fastest growing economy in the world.

Genocide in the Balkans The proliferation of conflicts led to various forms of ethnic violence and the displacement of peoples resulting in refugee populations. Yugoslavia was created after World War I (Versailles Treaty) & controlled by the Soviet Union after WWII. This area contained Orthodox Christian Serbs, Catholic Croats, and Bosnian Muslims. When Communism collapsed in 1991 fighting broke out between the groups. Croatia & Slovenia declared independence. Yugoslavia responded by attacking Croatia. Fighting also erupted in BOSNIA between the Muslims and Orthodox Christian Serbs. Yugoslavia entered that conflict on the side of the Christians. Bosnian Serbs began an ethnic cleansing of all Muslims (extermination). 1995: US and NATO stepped in and ended the war. Bosnia was divided into a two republics, one Muslim and one Serb. 1999: US & NATO aerial war against Serbs trying to take Kosovo.

Genocide in Africa The proliferation of conflicts led to various forms of ethnic violence and the displacement of peoples resulting in refugee populations. RWANDA: Small densely populated central African country. Hutu majority and a Tutsi minority population. 1994 the Rwandan president (Hutu) is killed in a plane explosion. Hutu troops began killing Tutsi citizens. The UN estimates that about 850,000 people were killed, about half the Tutsi population. DARFUR: Conflict in Sudan that began over grazing grounds and farmland in the early 1990s. Government backed militia (Janjaweed) made up of mostly of Arab tribesmen killed more than 200,000 black Africans and displaced 2 million more. The US declared these acts of genocide in 2007. 2011 Nation of South Sudan

End of Apartheid in South Africa Groups and individuals opposed and promoted alternatives to the existing economic, political, and social orders. In 1948 the mostly white majority in South Africa introduced apartheid or racial separation. Black South Africans could not live in white areas or intermarry. Nelson Mandela led the African National Congress in opposition to apartheid. He was imprisoned in 1962. The US and other western countries refused to do business with South Africa. In 1989 F.W. de Klerk was elected president. He released Mandela and a new constitution was written which promised a new nation that included all races. In 1994, Nelson Mandela was elected President. De Klerk and Mandela

More movements used violence against civilians to achieve political aims.

(Pearl Harbor 2335) Al-Qaeda and the September 11, 2001 Attacks Al-Qaeda: Terrorist organization led by Osama bin Laden. He was angered by US troops in Saudi Arabia and called for a jihad (holy war) against the US. 9-11-01 Al-Qaeda hijacked four US commercial airliners Crashed two into the World Trade Center Crashed one into the Pentagon. United Flight #93 crashed into a Pennsylvania field. President Bush declared a war on terrorism Deaths on 9/11: World Trade Center 2751 Pentagon 184 UA Flight 93 40 TOTAL: 2977

The War in Afghanistan (longest war in US history) Taliban Strict Islamic Fundamentalist government Supported terrorist groups like Al- Qaeda US invaded Afghanistan to capture Osama bin Laden in October 2001 US overthrew the Taliban regime and established a democratic government. Violence continues in Afghanistan and neighboring Pakistan Osama bin Laden was killed by US Navy Seals in May of 2011 in Pakistan. Casualties as of Feb. 15, 2016: 3,509 deaths 20,048 wounded The war officially ended on December 28, 2014; however, 13,000 US troops remain to train/advise the Afghan army.

The Second Iraq War Saddam Hussein failed to honor his agreement to let UN inspectors monitor Iraq. World leaders were worried he was stockpiling weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). None were found. The US & its allies invaded Iraq in March 2003 and quickly defeated the Iraqi forces. The US set up a democratic government and withdrew all forces in Iraq on December 18, 2011. Terrorist attacks & ISIS continue to be a problem in Iraq today. Casualties: 4,806 deaths 32,246 wounded

Demographic Shifts in the 20 th /21 st Centuries Disease, scientific innovations, and conflict led to demographic shifts. Medical innovations increased the ability of humans to survive (Polio vaccine, antibiotics, artificial heart). Diseases associated with poverty persisted (malaria, tuberculosis, cholera) New diseases emerged as new epidemics and threats to human survival (1918 influenza pandemic, Ebola, HIV/AIDS). Changing lifestyles & increased longevity led to higher incidence of certain diseases (Diabetes, heart disease, Alzheimer s). More effective forms of birth control gave women greater control over fertility and transformed sexual practices. (the pill)

Global Humanitarian Organizations Humanitarian organizations developed to respond to humanitarian crises throughout the world.

The World Economy New economic institutions sought to spread the principles and practices associated with free market economics throughout the world. ECONOMY WAS Asia, Africa, & Latin America exported raw materials & served as markets for finished goods. ECONOMY NOW American purchases stimulated the economies of Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong, & Taiwan. PATTERN OF WEALTH DISTRIBUTION: altered by fluctuations in the price of oil, the collapse of the former Soviet Union & eastern Europe, and the economic boom in Southeast Asia. GLOBALLY INTERCONNECTED ECONOMIES: North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, the use of economic sanctions as a tool for influencing foreign countries, & the development of the World Trade Organization. Multinational corporations began to challenge state authority and autonomy. MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS: Coca-Cola, Sony

Responding to Environmental Threats Movements throughout the world protested the inequality of environmental and economic consequences of global integration. DEVELOPED NATIONS: Beginning in the 1970s, initiatives to preserve and protect the environment in the 1970s. (anti-pollution laws and recycling efforts) Environmental awareness spread by means of the media & grassroots political movements. DEVELOPING NATIONS: population growth led to deforestation & use of marginal lands to expand food production. This led to erosion and water pollution. population pressures & weak governments were major obstacles to effective environmental policies.

Global Culture Popular and consumer culture became global. MOTION PICTURES Exporters of American Culture; growing film industries (Bollywood). http://www.cbsnews.com/news/60-minutes-china-film-industry-booming/ SATELLITE CABLE TV CNN, MTV, AL JAZEERA. INTERNET: Information at your fingertips. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-yjt8h4zpfo) SOCIAL MEDIA: YouTube, Facebook, Twitter (Arab Spring of 2011; Syrian Civil War, 2013; Ukraine, 2014; ISIS, 2016) SPORT: Olympics, World Cup COLA WARS: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jgux-unllbi ENDURANCE OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY: Diverse cultural traditions persisted at the end of the twentieth century despite the globalization of industrial society and the integration of economic markets

CH 37 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How did the Cold War affect the political development of Latin American nations between 1975 and 2000? 2. Why is democracy considered a mixed success in Africa? 3. Why did the communist regimes collapse in the Soviet Union and eastern Europe, but not in China? 4. What is the relationship among the rate of population growth, the availability of natural resources, and the wealth of a nation? 5. What countries were successful in achieving industrialization and economic growth in the 1970s to 1980s? What factors explain the success of some countries and the failure of others? 6. Are environmental protection and economic growth compatible?

CH 38 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. To what extent can contemporary local and regional conflicts be attributed to the nation-state system? Are there viable alternatives to the nation-state system? 2. How did technology affect the development of the global economy in the late twentieth century? 3. How did technological innovation and dissemination change the ways in which nations and people were able to threaten each other with violence in the late twentieth century? 4. Is there sufficient justification for Western organizations and governments to concern themselves with human rights and women's rights issues in non- Western countries? 5. What roles have modernism and postmodernism played in the development of a global or international culture? 6. What will be the major sources of conflict in the first decades of the twenty-first century?