E S S E N T I A L S OF C A N A D I A N L A W THE CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS F O U R T H E D I T I O N HON. ROBERT J. SHARPE Court of Appeal for Ontario KENT ROACH Faculty of Law, University of Toronto
DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION xvii INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 1: HISTORICAL CONTEXT 4 A. The Pre-1982 Canadian Constitution 4 1) Parliamentary Supremacy 4 2) Federalism 5 B. Rights Protection through Common Law and Statutory Interpretation 6 C. The Constitution Act, 1867, and the Protection of Fundamental Rights 8 D. The Constitution Act, 1867, and Protection against Discrimination 11 E. International Human Rights Charters i4 F. Human Rights Codes 15 G. The Canadian Bill of Rights, 1960 16 H. The Drafting of the Charter 18 I. The Secession Reference and the Unwritten Structural Principles of the Constitution 21 J. Use of Unwritten Constitutional Principles in Subsequent Litigation 23 Further Readings 25
viii THE CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS CHAPTER 2: THE LEGITIMACY OF JUDICIAL REVIEW 27 A. Justification for Judicial Review Federalism 29 B. Concerns about Judicial Power under the Charter 31 C. Justifications for Judicial Review Charter of Rights and Freedoms 34 1) Judicial Review to Protect Democracy 34 2) Judicial Review and Rights Protection 37 3) Judicial Review and Framers' Intent 38 4) Judicial Review as Part of a Democratic Dialogue 39 D. The Role of the Courts under the Charter 42 E. Conclusion 44 Further Readings 45 CHAPTER 3: INTERPRETATION OF THE CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS 47 A. The Nature of Charter Rights 47 B. Interpretation of Charter Rights 51 1) The Purposive Method 52 2) The Contextual Method 56 3) The Reconciliation of Competing Rights 58 4) Interpretive Sources 59 C. Conclusion 62 Further Readings 63 CHAPTER 4: LIMITATION OF CHARTER RIGHTS 65 A. Limits Prescribed by Law 65 B. Proportionality 68 1) Sufficiently Important Objective 69 2) Rational Connection between Limit and Objective 71 3) Minimal Impairment 74 4) Overall Balance 76 C. The Oakes Test: Strict Rules or Guiding Principles? 77 1) Broad Issues of Social and Economic Policy 79
Detailed Table of Contents ix 2) Reconciling Competing Claims and Protecting Vulnerable Groups 81 3) Definitional Elements 83 4) Relationship to Section 33 85 5) Cost 86 6) Consultation 86 D. Burden of Proof and Section 1 Evidence 87 E. Conclusion 88 Further Readings 88 CHAPTER 5: THE LEGISLATIVE OVERRIDE 90 Further Readings 95 CHAPTER 6: APPLICATION 97 A. Dolphin Delivery Limiting the Application of the Charter 98 B. What Is Government? 100 C. Indirect Application of the Charter 102 D. Applying the Charter to the Common Law 103 E. Extraterritorial Application 106 F. Claiming Charter Rights 109 G. Conclusion 110 Further Readings ill CHAPTER 7: CHARTER LITIGATION 112 A. Intervention by the Attorney General and Public-Interest Groups 113 B. References 114 C. Declaratory Proceedings, Standing, Advance Costs and Mootness 117 D. The System of Courts and Jurisdiction in Charter Cases 120 1) Provincial Courts 121 2) Superior Courts 121 3) Federal Court 122 4) The Supreme Court of Canada 122
x THE CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS a) Composition of the Court and Appointment of Judges 124 b) The Hearing of Appeals 127 E. Conclusion 128 Further Readings 128 CHAPTER 8: FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE AND RELIGION 129 A. Sunday Closing Laws 131 B. Accommodation of Religion 135 C. Parental Rights 138 D. Religion and Education 139 1) School Prayer and Religious Instruction 140 2) School Safety and Religious Requirements 141 3) Sectarian Schools 142 E. Reconciling Freedom of Religion with Other Values 145 F. Conclusion 148 Further Readings 149 CHAPTER 9: FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION 150 A. Reconciling Freedom of Expression with Other Values 151 B. Commercial Expression 155 C. Political Expression 159 D. Hate Speech 164 E. Pornography 168 F. Judicial Proceedings 171 G. Protection of Reputation 175 H. Location of the Expression 177 I. Conclusion 180 Further Readings 181 CHAPTER 10: FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION m A. The Right to Engage in Collective Bargaining 184
Detailed Table of Contents xi B. The Right Not to Associate 189 C. Conclusion 191 Further Readings 192 CHAPTER 11: DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS 194 A. Voter Qualifications 195 B. Regulating the Electoral Process 199 1) Electoral Boundaries 200 2) Party Benefits 205 3) Third Party Advertising 207 C. Conclusion 208 Further Readings 209 CHAPTER 12: MOBILITY RIGHTS 211 A. The Right to Enter and Leave Canada 212 B. Interprovincial Mobility 214 C. Conclusion 217 Further Readings 218 CHAPTER 13: LIFE, LIBERTY, AND SECURITY OF THE PERSON AND THE PRINCIPLES OF FUNDAMENTAL JUSTICE 219 A. The Requirements of a Section 7 Violation 221 1) Everyone 222 2) Life, Liberty, and Security of the Person 223 a) The Right to Life 224 b) The Right to Liberty 224 c) The Right to Security of the Person 226 3) Principles of Fundamental Justice 228 a) Substance, Procedure, and the Basic Tenets of the Justice System 228 b) Vagueness 234 c) Overbreadth 237 B. Interests Protected by Section 7 238
xii THE CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS 1) Control of the Body: Abortion, Assisted Suicide, and Access to Health Care 239 a) Abortion 239 b) Assisted Suicide 242 c) Access to Health Care 243 2) Privacy, the Family, and Fundamental Personal Choices 244 3) Extradition and Deportation to Face Death or Torture and National Security Matters 248 4) Economic Rights 253 C. Conclusion 256 Further Readings 257 CHAPTER 14: CHARTER RIGHTS IN THE CRIMINAL PROCESS 259 A. Section 7 and the Principles of Fundamental Justice 261 1) The Fault Element 261 2) Defences 264 3) Procedural Rights 265 a) Right to Silence 265 b) Right against Self-Incrimination 266 c) Right to Disclosure of the Prosecution's Case 267 d) Right to Make Full Answer and Defence 268 e) Detention of Those Found Not Guilty by Reason of Mental Disorder 271 B. Unreasonable Search and Seizure 272 C. Arbitrary Detention and Imprisonment 278 D. Rights on Detention and Arrest 281 1) Right to Be Informed of the Reasons for Arrest or Detention 281 2) Right to Retain and Instruct Counsel and to Be Informed of That Right 282 3) Right to Habeas Corpus 284 E. Rights of Persons Charged With an Offence 285 1) Right to Be Informed without Unreasonable Delay of the Specific Offence 286 2) Right to Be Tried without Unreasonable Delay 286 3) Right against Self-lncrimination 287 4) Presumption of Innocence and Right to a Fair Hearing by an Independent and Impartial Tribunal 288 a) Presumption of Innocence 288
Detailed Table of Contents xiii b) Right to a Fair Hearing by an Independent and Impartial Tribunal 290 5) Right to Reasonable Bail 291 6) Right to Jury Trial 291 7) Ex Post Facto Laws 292 8) Double Jeopardy 293 9) Benefit of Lesser Punishment 293 F. Cruel and Unusual Punishment 294 G. Right Against Self-Incrimination 295 H. Right to an Interpreter 297 I. Remedies in the Criminal Process 298 1) Stay of Proceedings 298 2) Exclusion of Evidence 299 J. Conclusion 305 Further Readings 306 CHAPTER 15: EQUALITY 307 A. Equality under the Canadian Bill of Rights 308 B. Drafting the Charter's Equality Guarantee 309 C. The Scope of the Equality Guarantee 310 D. The Supreme Court Speaks: Andrews v. Law Society of British Columbia 313 E. A Divided Court: The 1995 Trilogy 316 F. A United Court: Law v. Canada 320 G. R. v. Kapp: Law Qualified and Simplified? 324 H. Important Aspects of the Test tor Equality 325 1) Analogous Grounds 325 2) Comparator Groups 328 3) The Perspective of the Claimant 330 4) The Contextual Factors 331 5) Section 15(2) 333 I. Grounds of Discrimination 335 1) Discrimination against Gays and Lesbians 335 2) Age Discrimination 340 3) Disability 345 4) Sex Discrimination 349
xiv THE CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS J. Conclusion 353 Further Readings 355 CHAPTER 16: LANGUAGE RIGHTS 357 A. The Nature of Language Rights 358 B. The Constitution Act, 1867 359 C. Language Rights and the Charter 361 D. Freedom of Expression and Language 362 E. Interpreting Language Rights 364 1) Institutional Bilingualism 364 2) Minority Language Education Rights 367 F. Conclusion 371 Further Readings 371 CHAPTER 17: REMEDIES 373 A. General Considerations Governing the Exercise of Remedial Discretion 374 1) The Availability of Remedies under Section 24(1) of the Charter and Section 52(1) of the Constitution Act, 1982 374 2) The Judicial Role in Crafting Remedies 375 3) The Norm of Immediate and Retroactive Relief and Justifications for Prospective and Suspended Declarations of Invalidation 377 B. Specific Remedies 378 1) Declaratory Relief 378 2) Injunctions 380 3) Damages 384 4) Remedies Affecting Legislation 388 a) Striking Down 389 b) Severance and Partial Invalidity 390 c) Reading Down 391 d) Reading In and Extension of Benefits 393 e) Constitutional Exemptions 395 0 Temporary Suspension of Invalidity 397 g) Prospective Remedies and Refusals to Grant Retroactive Remedies 400 C. Conclusion 401
Detailed Table of Contents xv Further Readings 402 CONCLUSION 404 GLOSSARY 409 CONSTITUTION ACT, 1982 415 TABLE OF CASES 425 INDEX 443 ABOUT THE AUTHORS 449