.Wolters Kluwer Law & Business

ASPEN PUBLISHERS CASES AND MATERIALS ON EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION Seventh Edition MICHAEL J. ZIMMER Professor of Law Seton Hall University CHARLES A. SULLIVAN Professor of Law Seton Hall University REBECCA HANNER WHITE Dean and J. Alton Hosch Professor of Law University of Georgia.Wolters Kluwer Law & Business AUSTIN BOSTON CHICAGO NEW YORK THE NETHERLANDS

CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgments Note to Students xxi xxv xxvii Chapter 1 Individual Disparate Treatment Discrimination A. Introduction B. The Elements of an Individual Disparate Treatment Case 1. Intent to Discriminate Slack v. Havens Hazen Paper Co. v. Biggins 2. Terms, Conditions, or Privileges of Employment Hishon v. King 6 1 Spalding Minor v. Centocor, Inc. 3. Linking Discriminatory Intent to the Employer's Treatment of Plaintiff Desert Palace, Inc. v. Costa C. Proving the Discrimination Element Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins Note on the Intent of Multiple Decision-Makers McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green Patterson v. McLean Credit Union Ash v. Tyson Foods, Inc. McDonald v. Santa Fe Trail Transportation Co. Note on "Reverse" Discrimination Note on Preferences for Older Workers Note Comparing Section 1981 and Title VII Reeves v. Sanderson Plumbing Products, Inc. 1 1 2 2 2 4 9 12 16 16 17 18 19 23 24 28 32 32 41 47 50 54 62 63 64 68 71 76 77 78 78 85 XI

xii Contents D. Implementing Desert Palace and Reeves 95 Rachid v. Jack in the Box, Inc. 95 101 Note on Special Issues of Proof 107 Note on Litigation Scorecard 110 Problem 1.1 111 Note on International and Comparative Antidiscrimination Law 111 Chapter 2 Systemic Disparate Treatment Discrimination 115 A. Introduction 115 B. Formal Policies of Discrimination 116 Los Angeles Department of Water 6- Power v. Manhart 116 120 C. Patterns and Practices of Discrimination 123 Teamsters v. United States 123 127 Hazelwood School District v. United States 129 135 Note on Sophisticated Statistical Techniques 141 D. Defenses to Disparate Treatment Cases 155 1. Rebutting the Inference of Discriminatory Intent 155 Personnel Administrator v. Feeney 155 156 EEOC v. Sears, Roebuck 6 Co. 157 161 Note on the New Stucturalism 166 Note on Nature Versus Nature 168 Problem 2.1 171 2. Bona Fide Occupational Qualifications 171 International Union, UAW v. Johnson Controls, Inc. 173 180 3. Voluntary Affirmative Action 183 Johnson v. Transportation Agency of Santa Clara County 184 197 "Affirmative Action" Under the ADEA 200 Note on Affirmative Action and the Constitution 201 Note on International and Comparative Antidiscrimination Law 205 Chapter 3 Systemic Disparate Impact Discrimination 207 A. The Concept of Disparate Impact Discrimination 207 Griggs v. Duke Power Co. 207 212

Contents Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio Smith v. City of Jackson B. The Structure of Disparate Impact Law After the 1991 Civil Rights Act 1. Plaintiffs Proof of a Prima Facie Case a. A Particular Employment Practice Watson v. Fort Worth Bank & Trust Connecticut v. Teal Problem 3.1 b. The Employer Uses the Practice Dothard v. Rawlinson Problem 3.2 c. The Quantum of Impact 2. Defendant's Options a. Rebuttal: The Employer's Use Does Not Cause Impact b. Business Necessity and Job Relatedness El v. Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority Problem 3.3 3. Alternative Employment Practices Adams v. City of Chicago C. Section 703(h) Exceptions 1. Professionally Developed Tests Albemarle Paper Co. v. Mood)' Bryant v. City of Chicago 2. Bona Fide Seniority Systems Lester C. Thurow, The Zero Sum Society 3. Bona Fide Merit and Piecework Svstems Note on Litigation Scorecard Note on International and Comparative Antidiscrimination Law 213 220 223 228 231 232 232 232 234 237 242 246 246 246 249 251 252 254 254 255 255 262 266 267 268 273 275 275 276 279 281 286 288 288 291 291 292 Chapter 4 The Interrelation of the Three Theories of Discrimination Problem 4.1 A. The Interrelationship of Individual and Systemic Disparate Treatment Baylie v. FRB 293 293 294 295 297

xiv Contents Note on the Relation Between Individual Cases and Unsuccessful Class Actions 299 B. The Relationship Between Individual Disparate Treatment and Disparate Impact 299 C. The Relationship Between Systemic Disparate Treatment and Disparate Impact 300 1. Disparate Impact Analysis Inapplicable to Systemic Disparate Treatment Cases 300 2. Intent to Discriminate: The Dividing Line Between the Two Systemic Theories 301 3. Applying the Two Systemic Theories in One Case 302 EEOC v. Dial Corporation 303 306 4. The Relationship of the Systemic Theories 310 a. When Can the Theories Be Deployed? 310 b. Out of the Disparate Treatment Pan into the Disparate Impact Fire? 311 D. Reconciling the Tension Between Disparate Treatment and Disparate Impact 314 Problem 4.2 316 Chapter 5 Special Problems in Applying Title VII, Section 1981, andtheadea 317 A. Introduction 317 B. Coverage of Title VII, Section 1981, and the ADEA 317 herohl v. Friends of Minnesota Sinfonia 318 322 Note on Coverage of J1981 329 Note on Constitutional Limitations on the Reach of the Antidiscrimination Laws 330 C. Sex Discrimination 331 1. Discrimination "Because of Sex" 332 Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc. 332 335 a. Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation 337 Vickers v. Fairfield Medical Center 337 342 b. "Reverse Discrimination" and "Personal Relationships" 346 c. Grooming and Dress Codes 347 Jespersen v. Harrah's Operating Company, Inc. 347 350 d. Discrimination Because of Pregnancy 353 Maldonado v. U.S. Bank and Manufacturers Bank 355 359 California Federal Savings & Loan Association v. Guerra 362 366

Contents xv Note on Accommodating Pregnancy Under the Americans with Disabilities Act 368 Note on Childrearing Leave 368 Note on the Family and Medical Leave Act 369 Problem 5.1 369 2. Sexual and Other Discriminatory Harassment 370 Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson 370 374 Note on Other Discriminatory Harassment 375 a. Severe or Pervasive Harassment 376 Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc. 376 378 b. The "Reasonable Person" Requirement 382 c. "Unwelcome" Conduct 383 d. Vicarious Liability 384 Burlington Industries, Inc. v. Ellerth 384 391 Pennsylvania State Police v. Suders 394 401 Matvia v. Bald Head Island Management, Inc. 403 407 Note on Employer Liability for Harassment by Co-Workers and Customers 413 Note on the First Amendment Implications of Sexual Harassment Liability 415 Note on Alternative Remedies for Harassment 417 D. Discrimination on Account of Religion 418 Reed v. Great Lakes Cos. 418 421 The Duty of Reasonable Accommodation 425 Wilson v. U.S. West Communications 428 431 Note on Religious Institutions' Exemption from the Prohibition of Religious Discrimination 435 Note on BFOQ Defense to Religious Discrimination 436 Note on the Establishment Clause 437 Note on the Free Exercise Clause 438 E. National Origin and Alienage Discrimination 442 Zamora v. Elite Logistics, Inc. 442 451 Note on Language and National Origin Discrimination 454 Note on Trait Discrimination 456 Note on Section 1981's Application to National Origin and Alienage Discrimination 458 Limiting the Rights of Unauthorized Aliens 458 F. Union Liability 459 G. Retaliation 461 Clark County School District v. Breeden 461 464

xvi Contents 1. Protected Conduct Laughlin v. Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority 2. Adverse Action Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway Co. v. White H. Age Discrimination 1. Bona Fide Executive Exception 2. Exception for Police and Firefighters 3. Bona Fide Employee Benefit Plans 4. Early Retirement Incentive Plans Note on International and Comparative Antidiscrimination Law 467 468 471 473 473 480 481 482 482 483 484 485 Chapter 6 Disability Discrimination A. Introduction B. The Meaning of "Disability" 1. Actual Disability Bragdon v. Abbott Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Kentucky, Inc. v. Williams Sutton v. United Air Lines, Inc. Note on Deference to the EEOC Problem 6.1 Problem 6.2 2. Record of Such an Impairment Problem 6.3 3. Regarded as Having Such an Impairment Sutton v. United Air Lines, Inc. EEOC v. Schneider Nat'l, Inc. C. The Meaning of "Qualified Individual with a Disability" 1. Essential Job Functions Rehrs v. The lams Company Problem 6.4 Problem 6.5 2. The Duty of Reasonable Accommodation US Airways, Inc. v. Bamett Huber v. Wal-Mart 487 487 490 492 492 498 501 506 509 518 520 522 523 523 524 524 524 527 529 533 534 534 536 538 538 539 540 548 548 551

Contents xvii Vande Zande v. State of Wisconsin Department of Administration 552 555 Gambini v. Total Renal Care, Inc. 557 560 Note on Accommodations Necessary to Enjoy Benefits and Privileges of Employment 561 Note on Knowing That Accommodation Is Needed 562 3. Undue Hardship 563 Note on Burdens of Production and Proof 565 D. Discriminatory Qualification Standards 566 1. Direct Threat 567 Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. Echazabal 568 573 Problem 6.6 575 2. Job-Related and Consistent with Business Necessity 576 Albertson's, Inc. v. Kirkingburg 576 580 3. Disparate Impact 581 E. Special Problems of Disability Discrimination 582 1. Drug or Alcohol Users 582 2. Medical Examinations and Inquiries 583 a. Pre-Employment Medical Examinations and Inquiries 583 b. Medical Examinations and Inquiries of Current Employees 584 3. Retaliation and Interference 585 4. Harassment 586 5. Protected Relationships 586 6. Health and Disability Insurance 587 EEOC Interim Guidance on Application of ADA to Health Insurance 587 591 7. Familv and Medical Leave Act 591 Chapter 7 Procedures for Enforcing Antidiscrimination Laws 595 A. Introduction 595 B. The Administrative Phase: Charge Filing 596 1. Introduction 596 2. Filing a Timely Charge 597 Ledbetter v. The Goodyear Tire (5 Rubber Co., Inc. 598 611 Note on Timeliness in Pattern and Practice Cases 617 Note on Waiver, Tolling, and Estoppel 618 C. Filing Suit 620 Problem 7.1 621 D. Relationship of the EEOC Charge to Private Suit 622 1. Proper Plaintiffs 623 2. Proper Defendants 624

xviii Contents 3. Scope of the Suit 624 Note on Avoiding the Title VII Procedural Maze Via J 1981 625 E. The Interrelationship of Various Rights and Remedies 626 F. Class Actions 627 1. Introduction 627 2. Requirements of Rule 23(a) 629 Dukes v. Wal-Mart, Inc. 632 641 3. Requirements of Rule 23(b) 644 4. Settling Class Actions 645 G. Federal Government Enforcement 646 H. Suit Against Governmental Employers 648 1. State and Local Government Employment 648 a. Tenth and Eleventh Amendment Challenges 648 b. Exemptions 650 2. Federal Employment 651 Chapter 8 Judicial Relief 653 A. Introduction 653 Albemarle Paper Co. v. Moody 654 656 B. Equitable Relief to the Victims of Discrimination 658 1. Reinstatement, Retroactive Seniority, and Injunctive Relief 658 Franks v. Bowman Transportation Co. 658 661 2. Who Gets Retroactive Seniority and Backpay? 664 Teamsters v. United States 664 668 3. Limits on Backpay 670 a. The Backpay Period 671 Ford Motor Co. v. EEOC 671 674 McKennon v. Nashville Banner Publishing Co. 676 678 b. The Duty to Mitigate Damages 679 4. Front Pay 680 Cassino v. Reichhold Chemicals, Inc. 681 682 C. Legal Remedies to the Victims of Discrimination 684 1. Compensatory Damages 685 Turic v. Holland Hospitality, Inc. 685 686 Pollard v. E. 1. du Pont de Nemours 6 Co. 687 690 2. Punitive Damages 690 Kolstad v. American Dental Association 690

Contents xix D. Note on Operation of the Statutory Caps Note on Personal Liability of Employees 3. Liquidated Damages Hazen Paper Co. v. Biggins Attorneys' Fees Christiansburg Garment Co. v. EEOC Buckhannon Board 6- Care Home, Inc. v. West Virginia Department of Health (5 Human Resources Arbor Hill Concerned Citizens Neighborhood Ass'n v. County of Albany Note on Taxation, Insurance, and Bankruptcy 694 698 699 700 700 702 703 703 706 708 711 712 715 718 A. B. Chapter 9 Managing Risks in Employment Discrimination Disputes Introduction Settlements and Releases Oubre v. Entergy Operations, Inc. Arbitrating Discrimination Claims Gilmer v. Interstate /Johnson Lane Corp. Note on the Policy Implications of Arbitration Circuit City Stores, Inc. v. Adams Note on the Elephant in the Room: Allocating the Costs of Arbitration Note on Enforcing the Arbitral Award Problem 9.1 Note on International and Comparative Antidiscrimination Law 721 721 722 724 727 732 733 740 744 747 750 755 756 757 757 A. B. C. Chapter 10 The Policy Bases for Antidiscrimination Law Introduction Discrimination and the Free Market Jacob E. Gersen, Markets and Discrimination Whv Prohibit Discrimination? Patricia I. Williams. The Alchemv of Race and Rights 761 761 762 763 766 770 774

xx Contents D. The Costs and Benefits of Prohibiting Discrimination 779 1. Weighing Economic Costs and Benefits 779 2. Weighing Noneconomic Costs and Benefits 785 Table of Cases 789 Table of Selected Secondary Authorities 809 Index 823