Working time developments - 2002 Mark Carley European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions This review of developments in the length of working time in 2001 and 2002 finds that average collectively agreed weekly working time the European Union (plus Norway) remained relatively stable at around 38.2 hours. Major general working time reductions were virtually absent across the EU over 2001-2, though smaller cuts continued in some countries in particular sectors and companies. Across the EU and Norway, agreed normal annual working time averages around 1,710 hours. In sectoral terms, agreed weekly hours are highest in chemicals, followed by retail and the civil service. Average collectively agreed paid annual leave entitlement rose slightly to just under 26 days in 2002. We also include data on three candidate countries (Hungary, Poland and Slovakia), where working time is generally longer than in the EU. Here we provide an overview of the duration of working time - as set by collective agreements and legislation - in the European Union and Norway in 2002 (and 2001), based on contributions from the European Industrial Relations Observatory (EIRO) national centres. For the first time, we also include some data for three of the candidate countries which are to join the EU in 2004 - Hungary, Poland and Slovakia. Setting the duration of working time remains a fundamental issue in industrial relations. While (as we will see below) major general cuts in weekly working hours have been rare for some years (with the most notable exception being the introduction of a statutory 35-hour week in France), they remain on the agenda of many trade unions and some governments. Furthermore, less dramatically, smaller working time reductions continue to be negotiated, often as a quid pro quo for workers in exchange for forms of flexibility sought by employers. The EU's 2002 Employment Guidelines invite the social partners: `to negotiate and implement at all appropriate levels agreements to modernise the organisation of work, including flexible working arrangements, with the aim of making undertakings productive, competitive and adaptable to industrial change, achieving the required balance between flexibility and security, and increasing the quality of jobs. Subjects to be covered may, for example, include... working time issues such as the expression of working time as an annual figure, the reduction of working hours, the reduction of overtime, the development of part-time working, access to career breaks, and associated job security issues. Achieving further reductions in working time is still a central demand for the trade union movement across Europe. The European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) adopted a resolution at its 1999 congress (EU9907182F) which included a commitment to continue campaigning for a 35-hour week and all other forms of reduction and reorganisation of working time through collective bargaining `combined, where necessary, in an appropriate fashion with legislative initiatives. At European sectoral level, the European Metalworkers' Federation (EMF) adopted in 1998 a working time charter (BE9912311F) which: set a target of a 35-hour working week with no loss of pay; rejected all demands for an extension of working time; and laid down a European minimum standard of 1,750 hours maximum contractual working time per year (which translates as a 38- hour week). Another example is that the European Federation of Public Service Unions (EPSU) adopted a policy statement at its 2000 general assembly which sets the 35-hour working week as a `priority demand for its affiliates As with other areas of labour statistics, there are numerous difficulties in making international comparisons on the length of working time. Comparable data are not collected in all countries, while particular problems include: 1. the existence of different ways of calculating working time, with annual, rather than weekly calculation increasingly common in some countries; 2. the fact that working time reductions in some countries have been introduced through extra days off or cuts in annual hours, leaving the normal working week relatively unchanged; 3. the increasing use of schemes whereby weekly hours may vary considerably around an average over a reference period; 4. the treatment of part-time workers; and 5. the differing roles of bargaining and legislation, with the latter having an impact on actual hours in some countries, but setting only a maximum `safety net in others. Normal weekly working hours figures are also problematic in terms of comparing working time between countries as they do not take matters such as overtime or the length of annual and other forms of leave into account. The aim here is to provide some broad general data on current developments, while pointing out the pitfalls involved in comparisons. For reasons of space, and because our objective is not to provide a statistical guide, we do not provide full definitions of how the figures are arrived at for each country, but merely call attention to the problems. The figures provided should be treated with extreme caution, and the various notes and explanations read with care.
Average collectively agreed weekly hours Collective bargaining plays a key role in determining the duration of working time in all the countries considered here. However, the nature of this role differs widely between the countries, with different bargaining levels (intersectoral, sectoral, company etc) playing different parts, and bargaining coverage varying considerably (though 70% of employees or more are covered by collective bargaining in the majority of EU countries - TN0212102S). Furthermore, the importance of bargaining differs considerably between sectors of the economy and groups of workers. The relationship between bargaining and legislative provisions also varies between countries. Figure 1 below sets out the average normal weekly working hours in 2002 for full-time workers as set by collective bargaining, across the whole economy, for the EU Member States, Norway, Hungary and Slovakia. Figure 1. Average collectively agreed normal weekly hours, 2002 * 2000 figure; **2001 figure; *** Average of 16 countries; **** Average of 18 countries Source: EIRO. 2
Figure 1 should be read in conjunction with the following notes. Belgium: figure refers to the statutory working week set by the intersectoral collective agreement (this was cut to 38 from January 2003). Finland: figure, from Statistics Finland labour force survey, represents regular working hours including regular overtime. France: figure, from the Ministry of Employment's Office for Research and Statistics (Direction de l'animation de la recherche, des études et des statistiques du ministère de l'emploi, DARES) ACEMO survey, refers to third quarter of each year. Germany: figure covers the whole of Germany; the figure for west Germany was 37.4 hours in both 2001 and 2002 and the figure for east Germany 39.1 hours in 2001 and 39 in 2002; data from the Institute for Economics and Social Science (Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaftliches Institut, WSI) collective agreement archive. Greece: figure from National Statistical Service (ESYE). Hungary: collective agreements usually lay down the statutory weekly working hours of 40 hours (although the Labour Code allows collective agreements to stipulate a shorter period, in practice deviations from the statutory hours are relatively rare). Italy: figure represents the mid-range of agreements which provide for 36-40 hours per week. Luxembourg: figure is an estimate. Netherlands: figure based on a sample of collective agreements. Norway: figure represents `normal working hours for employees covered by collective agreements; employees working shifts (eg in metalworking) or at nights (eg in local government healthcare) work fewer weekly hours. Portugal: figure from Ministry of Labour and Solidarity's Department of Labour, Employment and Vocational Training Statistics (Departamento de Estatística do Trabalho, Emprego e Formação Profissional, DETEFP). Slovakia: figure refers to workers in single-shift systems - equivalent figure for workers in two-shift systems was 40.18 hours. Spain: figure calculated from Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (MTAS) collective bargaining statistics on average agreed annual hours (1,756.6 in September 2002), on the assumption of a six-day week and 274 working days a year. Sweden: figure represents the mid-range of agreements which provide for 37.5-40 hours per week. UK: figures from Incomes Data Services (IDS) Study 717 (October 2001) and 736 (September 2002). Figure 1 gives figures only for 2002, because in most cases these are identical to those for 2001. The overall average weekly hours for the 15 EU Member States plus Norway remained unchanged at 38.2. In 2002, as in the previous four years, major working time reductions were absent across the EU and Norway, with the notable exception of France, where a 35-hour week has been introduced progressively (reducing average collectively agreed normal weekly hours from 36.1 in 2001 to 35.7 in 2002) and, to a lesser extent, Belgium, where the 2001-2 national intersectoral agreement provided for a one-hour cut in the working week, from 39 to 38 hours, from January 2003. Even in France, the new conservative government which came to office in 2002 has sought to make the impact of the 35-hour week more flexible by increasing the annual overtime quota (FR0209105F). However, working time cuts were achieved in 2002 in some countries in particular sectors and companies (as in Greece, Italy, Luxembourg and Spain). Smaller reductions and shorter working time in the form of additional leave, often linked to the introduction of greater flexibility, were still common (as in Belgium and Denmark). Minor overall average reductions were seen in Spain, the UK and eastern Germany. Working time reductions remain on the agenda of many unions in the EU, especially in those countries with above-average agreed weekly hours. For example: 1. the Greek General Confederation of Labour (GSEE) called (unsuccessfully) for a reduction in the working week to 35 hours without loss of pay in negotiations over Greece's 2002-3 national general collective agreement; 2. Portuguese unions have made a 35-hour week a demand for bargaining in 2003 (PT0209104F); 3. at its 2002 congress, Spain's General Workers' Confederation (Unión General de Trabajadores, UGT) adopted a call for a four-day working week, with three days off, or a 35-hour week established by law, both without reductions in pay (ES0204201N); 4. at its general assembly held in November 2002, Austria's largest trade union, the Union of Salaried Employees (Gewerkschaft der Privatangestellten, GPA) called for a general working time reduction to 35 hours per week as a first step and to about 30 hours in the long run, with full wage compensation (AT0212202F); and 5. Germany's IG Metall metalworkers' trade union - a pioneer in working hours reductions in the 1980s and 1990s - debated its future working time policy in 2002 (DE0211204F). It is now seeking a staged reduction in weekly working hours in eastern Germany from 38 to 35, to bring them into line with the level in western Germany. However, in western Germany, while a general working time reduction below 35 hours a week remains on the 3
union's agenda, the immediate focus is on establishing the 35-hour week throughout IG Metall s organisational area, and on achieving convergence between actual and collectively agreed working time. In 2002, the range of normal weekly agreed hours across the EU and Norway was 4.3 hours - ie between 35.7 hours (France) and 40 hours (Greece). However, as in 2001, 13 countries have a normal working week of between 37 and 39 hours inclusive. Turning to the candidate countries, agreed weekly working time appears to be above the average for the EU and Norway (though no figures are available for Poland), if not dramatically so - adding Hungary and Slovakia to the countries considered increases the overall average by 0.3 hours to 38.5. Working time reductions seem high on the industrial relations agenda in some candidate countries. In Hungary, there was tripartite agreement in 2002 to support the reduction of working time in the long run, and to begin negotiations over the issue with a view to reaching an agreement by June 2003 (HU0212105F). Union had been demanding, with some government support, a reduction of statutory normal working time from 40 to 38 hours per week by 2006, starting with a half hour reduction in July 2003. In Slovakia, a new Labour Code which came into force in 2002 reduced the standard weekly working time from 42.5 to 40 hours, while collective agreements negotiated in 2002 for civil servants (SK0212102N) and public service employees (SK0209101N) reduced their weekly working time from 40 to 37.5 hours. Statutory maximum working week and day Collective bargaining on the duration of working time takes place in all countries within the framework of statutory rules on maximum working times. In the EU and Norway, these should, at the least, respect the provisions of the 1993 Directive (93/104/EC) on certain aspects of the organisation of working time, which include a 48-hour maximum working week (on average over a reference period not exceeding four months), a minimum daily rest period of 11 hours and a daily hours limit of eight hours for night workers. The candidate countries will be obliged to implement the terms of the Directive by the time that they join the EU. Table 1 below sets out the statutory maximum working week in the EU, Norway, Hungary and Slovakia (no information is available for Poland). Table 1. Statutory maximum working week, 2002 Denmark 48 France 48 Germany 48 Greece 48 Hungary 48 Ireland 48 Italy 48 Luxembourg 48 Netherlands 48 UK 48 Austria 40 Finland 40 Norway 40 Portugal 40 Slovakia 40 Spain 40 Sweden 40 Belgium 39 Source: EIRO. As table 1 shows, the EU countries and Norway break down into two main groups - those which set their maximum weekly hours at the 48 hours specified in the EU working time Directive (France has a 48-hour maximum week, with 35 hours being the statutory normal working week), and those which operate a rather lower limit of 40 hours (or 39 in Belgium). In the first group of countries, the statutory maximum is far in excess of average collectively agreed weekly working hours, and of actual or usual average weekly hours (see figure 5 and table 3 below) - it thus appears to operate essentially as a safety net. In the second group of countries, the statutory maximum is far closer to average agreed or actual/usual weekly hours (and is 4
identical to agreed hours in Belgium), indicating a more active role for the law in governing working time. Hungary falls into the former group and Slovakia into the latter group. These statutory maximum figures may be exceeded in many countries, in the context of working time flexibility schemes allowing weekly hours to be varied around an average over a reference period (as permitted by the EU Directive). To take a few examples: in Austria, weekly hours may be varied up to 50 over a reference period, by agreement, if an average 40-hour week is maintained; in Finland, weekly hours may be varied over a 52-week reference period, if an average 40-hour week is maintained; in the Netherlands, the 48-hour maximum must be maintained over a 13-week reference period. If no agreement is reached between employer and trade union (or works council), statutory maximum hours are nine per day, but by agreement daily hours may be extended to 12, as long as average weekly hours do not exceed 60 over a four-week reference period (and do not exceed 48 over a 13-week period); in Norway, average weekly hours may vary and be as high as 48, as long as the 40-hour maximum is maintained over over a reference period of up to one year; in some specific circumstances, and by agreement with union representatives, working time may be as long as 54 hours a week and 10 hours a day, for up to six consecutive weeks; in Portugal, a 50-hour week may be worked, as long as the 40-hour average is maintained over a four-month reference period (or up to 12 months by collective agreement); in Spain, weekly hours may be higher if a 40-hour average is maintained over a reference period; and in the UK, weekly hours may exceed 48 as long as this average is maintained over a 17-week reference period All the countries considered here also have a form of statutory maximum working day, as set out in table 2 below (no information is available for Poland). In Denmark, Ireland, Italy and the UK there is no explicit maximum working day (except for night workers), but a 13-hour maximum can be derived from the application of the working time Directive's minimum 11-hour daily rest period. Once again, daily hours may often be higher in the context of working time flexibility schemes. For example: in Finland, daily hours may be varied over a 52-week reference period, if an average 40-hour week is maintained; in Germany, daily hours may be extended up to 10, if an eight-hour average is maintained over a 24-week reference period; in the Netherlands, as mentioned above, if no agreement is reached between employer and trade union (or works council) statutory maximum hours are nine per day, but by agreement daily hours may be extended to 12, as long as average weekly hours do not exceed 60 over a four-week reference period (and do not exceed 48 over a 13-week period); in Spain, daily hours may be higher if the nine-hour average is maintained over a reference period; and in Sweden, daily hours may be varied in certain circumstances. Table 2. Statutory maximum working day, 2002 Denmark 13 Ireland 13 Italy 13 UK 13 Hungary 12 Austria 10 France 10 Luxembourg 10 Portugal 10 Netherlands 9 Norway 9 Spain 9 Belgium 8 Finland 8 Germany 8 5
Greece 8 Slovakia 8 Sweden 8 Source: EIRO. Collectively agreed weekly hours by sector Turning from the whole economy to individual sectors, we provide figures below for average normal weekly working hours for full-time workers as set by collective bargaining in sectors selected to represent manufacturing industry (chemicals), services (retail), and the public sector (the central civil service). While these more specific figures are probably more accurate than the overall average figures given in the previous section, extreme caution is again advised in their use, and the notes under each figure should be read carefully - all the caveats which are noted above also apply to the sectoral statistics. Comparing the three sectors, in 2002 the highest average collectively agreed weekly hours in the EU and Norway were found in chemicals at 38.3 hours, followed by retail at 38.2 hours and the civil service at 37.5 hours (the same ranking as in 2000). Average hours were slightly above the overall whole-economy average of 38.2 hours in chemicals, at the average in retail, and appreciably below average in the civil service. In all three cases (and most notably in the civil service) there have been slight falls since 1999-2000, usually due mainly to reductions in particular countries: Greece, Luxembourg and Spain in the case of chemicals; Belgium, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the UK in the case of retail; and France and Spain in the case of the civil service. This confirms that, despite the overall standstill in the move towards shorter working hours in almost all countries, reductions (generally small) persist in particular sectors and countries. With regard to the candidate countries, data are available from Hungary and Slovakia for chemicals and retail. In all cases apart from Slovakian chemicals, agreed weekly hours are above the EU/Norway average, though no higher than those found in some of the Member States with longer hours. Chemicals Figure 2 below shows collectively agreed normal weekly hours in chemicals (based on the relevant sectoral collective agreements, except where specified otherwise in the notes under the figure). The figure provides data only for 2002, reflecting the fact that there was virtually no change from the 2000 figure in all countries, with the exception of Slovakia and Spain, where there was a reduction (very slight in the latter case). Since 1999, average weekly hours in chemicals have fallen slightly from 38.4 to 38.3 across the EU and Norway, largely because of reductions in Greece, Luxembourg and, to a lesser extent, Spain. In 2002 in the EU and Norway, the longest weekly hours in chemicals (40) were found in Portugal and Sweden (though the Swedish figure is a norm which may be lower in practice) and the lowest - by some distance - in France (35). The range, at five hours, is slightly higher than that found for overall average weekly hours across the whole economy. The overall ranking of the countries is similar to that for the whole-economy figures, though working hours in Belgian chemicals are notably lower than the national average, while those in the Netherlands, Portugal and Sweden are notably higher. Europe-wide the average agreed working week in chemicals, at 38.3 hours, is very slightly above the overall average (38.2). Turning to the candidate countries, data are available for Hungary and Slovakia. While agreed hours in chemicals are above the EU/Norway average in Hungary (and at the Hungarian national average), they are lower in Slovakia (and well below the national average). 6
Figure 2. Collectively agreed normal weekly hours in chemicals, 2002 *2000 figure; ** Average of 16 countries; *** Average of 18 countries Source: EIRO. Figure 2 should be read in conjunction with the following notes. Finland: figure, from Statistics Finland labour force survey, represents regular working hours including regular overtime. Germany: figure, from the WSI collective agreement archive, applies to west Germany - the figure for east Germany was 40 hours. Greece: figure from Greek Federation of Workers in Chemicals. Portugal: working time regulated by law - chemicals sector agreement has not dealt with weekly working time in recent years. Slovakia: 35.5 hours for those working in continuous processes. Spain: chemical sector agreement sets annual hours of 1,764 in 2001 and 1,760 in 2002, weekly figure based on assumption of a six-day week and 274 working days a year. UK: figure, from IDS (see note to figure 1 above), refers to `oil, chemicals and pharmaceuticals. 7
Retail Figure 3 below shows collectively agreed normal weekly hours in retail (based on the relevant sectoral collective agreements, except where specified otherwise in the notes under the figure). The figure again provides data only for 2002, as there was virtually no change from the 2001 figure in all countries, with the exception of the UK, where there was a very slight fall. Since 1999, average weekly hours in banking in the EU and Norway have fallen slightly from 38.3 to 38.1, largely because of reductions in Belgium, Germany, Italy and Luxembourg. In the EU and Norway, the longest weekly hours (40) are found in Greece, Portugal and Sweden and the lowest in Belgium and France (35). The range, at five hours, is slightly higher than that found for overall average weekly hours. Working hours in Belgian and Finnish retail are notably lower than the national average, while those in Sweden, Italy, the Netherlands and Portugal are appreciably higher. Overall, the average agreed working week in retail, at 38.1 hours, is slightly lower than the overall average (38.2). In relation to the candidate countries, data are available for Hungary and Slovakia, and agreed hours in retail are above the EU/Norway average in both cases. In Hungary, agreed hours in retail are at the national average, while in Slovakia they are somewhat below the average. 8
Figure 3. Collectively agreed normal weekly hours in retail, 2002 * 2000 figure; ** 2001 figure; *** Average of 16 countries; **** Average of 18 countries Source: EIRO. Figure 3 should be read in conjunction with the following notes. Belgium: figure refer to sectoral agreement for supermarkets. Finland: figure, from Statistics Finland, is for whole services sector, France: 35-hour week introduced at various points by different subsectoral agreements, eg in large-scale retail by an agreement signed in December 2001. Germany: figure, from the WSI collective agreement archive, applies to west Germany - the figure for east Germany was 38 hours. Greece: figure from Greek Federation of Private Employees. Portugal; figure refers to Lisbon sectoral agreement. Spain: figure, for `retail and repairs, calculated from Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (MTAS) collective bargaining statistics on average agreed annual hours (1,796.5 in 2001), on the assumption of a six-day week and 274 working days a year. UK: figure, from IDS (see note to figure 1 above), refers to `retail and distribution. 9
Civil service Figure 4 below shows collectively agreed normal weekly hours in the central civil service (based on the relevant sectoral collective agreements, except where specified otherwise in the notes under the figure). No data are available for the candidate countries (where civil service working time has hitherto been governed by law rather than bargaining) The figure provides data only for 2002, as the situation was virtually static from 2001 to 2002 (with the exception of the progressive introduction of the 35-hour week in the various parts of the French civil service). Since 1999, average agreed weekly hours in the civil service in the EU and Norway have fallen slightly from 37.7 to 37.5, mainly due to reductions in France and Spain. The longest weekly hours (40) are found in Austria, Greece, Luxembourg and Sweden, and the lowest in France Portugal (35). As with chemicals and retail, the range, at five hours, is slightly higher than that found for overall average weekly hours. Working hours in the Belgian, Finnish, Italian, Dutch, Spanish and (most notably) Portuguese civil service are notably lower than the national average, while those in Austria, Luxembourg and Sweden are notably higher. Overall, the average agreed working week in local government, at 37.5 hours, is lower than the overall average (38.2) by over 40 minutes. Figure 4. Collectively agreed normal weekly hours in the central civil service, 2002 * 2000 figure; ** 2001 figure; *** Average of 16 countries Source: EIRO. 10
Figure 4 should be read in conjunction with the following notes. Austria: working time fixed by law or decrees, as almost all public sector employees are excluded from right to conclude collective agreements. France: agreements on the introduction of the 35-hour week have been reached at various times in the various parts of the civil service, such as hospitals and individual ministries. Germany: figure, from the WSI collective agreement archive, applies to west Germany - the figure for east Germany was 40 hours. Spain: figure, for `public administration, defence, social security and extra-regional bodies, calculated from MTAS collective bargaining statistics on average agreed annual hours (1,612 in 2001), on the assumption of a sixday week and 274 working days a year. UK: figure from IDS (see note to figure 1 above); basic agreed weekly working time in London is 36 hours. Actual/usual weekly working hours Some of the problems with data on collectively agreed normal weekly hours are avoided in statistics on actual weekly hours worked, typically measured in labour force surveys. These figures give a more accurate impression of how many hours workers actually work in a given week, as they include factors such as overtime and absence. However, the national data on average actual weekly hours is often problematic for purposes of comparison, given differing definitions. Notably, many national surveys do not distinguish between full- and part-time workers. Therefore, in figure 5 below we give the Eurostat figures for usual hours worked per week by full-time employees, based on its 2000 and 2001 labour force surveys, for the EU Member States and (for 2001 only) for the four candidate countries currently covered by EIRO (Hungary, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia). Usual hours worked per week correspond to the number of hours the person normally works, including extra hours - paid or unpaid - normally worked (but excluding travel time to and from work and main meal breaks). No gender breakdown is available. 11
Figure 5. Usual hours worked per week, full-time employees, 2000 and 2001 * Average Source: Eurostat labour force surveys. In the EU and Norway, the highest levels of usual hours worked by full-time employees are found in the UK, Greece and Spain and the lowest in Italy, Norway and France. Between 2000 and 2001, the average figure for the 16 countries remained stable at 39.8 hours, with slight falls in Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, the UK and (most notably) France, and slight rises in Belgium and Greece. The four candidate countries considered had average usual hours of 41.5 in 2001, over one-and-a-half hours above the EU/Norway average. However, the UK had longer average hours than any of the four candidate countries, while Greek hours exceeded those in Hungary. Usual hours worked are in all countries higher than the average normal collectively agreed working week, with the exception of Finland, where they are equal. Average usual weekly hours in the EU and Norway were 39.8 in 2001, compared with average collectively agreed weekly working time of 38.2 hours. The average usual working week is within one hour of the agreed normal week in seven countries. However, in six countries usual hours exceed agreed hours by two hours or more - Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and the UK. In the UK, there is a 6.5-hour gap between agreed and usual hours - arguably reflecting that country's long hours and overtime culture and the low coverage of collective bargaining. The Eurostat labour force surveys for 2000 and 2001 also give figures for the usual hours worked per week by part-time employees, and these are provided in figure 6 below. 12
Figure 6. Usual hours worked per week, part-time employees, 2000 and 2001 * Average Source: Eurostat labour force surveys. The highest levels of usual hours worked by part-time employees in the EU and Norway are found in Italy, France and Sweden and the lowest in Ireland the UK, Spain and Germany. Between 2000 and 2001, the average figure for the 16 countries rose slightly from 20.7 hours to 21.0 hours, with slight falls in Belgium, Finland, Italy, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal and slight rises in Denmark, France, Ireland, the Netherlands, Spain and the UK. The four candidate countries considered had average usual part-time hours of 22.9 in 2001, nearly two hours above the EU/Norway average. However, Italy had the same level of part-time hours as Poland, while the figure for Slovakia was below the EU/Norway average. There seems to be little relationship between the length of full-time and part-time hours, though it is notable that some of the countries with the highest usual full-time hours are among those with the lowest part-time hours - notably the UK, Spain and Slovenia - while some of the countries with the lowest usual full-time hours are among those with the highest part-time hours - notably Italy, France and Belgium. As noted above, the national data on average actual weekly hours are problematic for purposes of comparison, given differing definitions. However, for the 10 countries where this is available, this information is provided for full-time workers in table 3 below, not least as it allows for a gender breakdown of the figures in some cases (many of the 2002 figures are not yet available). 13
Table 3. Average actual weekly working hours, full-time workers, 2001 and 2002 2001 2002 Country All Women Men All Women Men Belgium 39.2 37.7 39.9 nd nd nd Finland 38.6 37.2 39.8 nd nd nd France 38.3 37.4 38.8 37.7 36.9 38.2 Greece 45.4 44.7 45.8 45.5 44.8 45.8 Netherlands* 39.1 38.2 39.4 nd nd nd Norway 40.1 37.9 41.2 nd nd nd Portugal* 39.0 nd nd nd nd nd Slovakia nd nd nd 41.8 41.5 42.1 Spain 38.6 36.7 39.6 38.9 37.3 39.8 UK 38.0 34.4 39.9 37.8 34.4 39.6 Source: EIRO. * 2000 figure. The figures in table 3 should be read in conjunction with the following notes. Belgium: figures from Statistics Belgium (Institut National de Statistique/Nationaal Instituut voor de Statistiek, INS/NIS) labour force survey. Finland: figure from the Statistics Finland labour force survey. France: figures from DARES ACEMO survey. Greece: figures from the ESYE labour force survey. Netherlands: figures, from Central Statistical Bureau (Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, CBS), exclude overtime. Norway: unofficial figures produced by FAFO on basis of Statistics Norway labour force surveys (employees temporarily absent from work not included). Portugal: figure from Quadros de Pessoal, Ministry of Labour and Solidarity. Slovakia: figures, from Slovak Statistical Office labour force survey, refer to second quarter. Spain: figures, from National Institute of Statistics (Instituto Nacional de Estadística, INE) labour force survey, refer to second quarter of each year and to average weekly reference working time. UK: figures, from Office for National Statistics (ONS) labour force survey, refer to spring quarter of each year. For nine countries, some figures are also available for the average actual weekly working hours of part-time workers -see table 4 below (again, many of the 2002 figures are not yet available). It should be noted that the definition of part-time workers varies from country to country. Table 4. Average actual weekly working hours, part-time workers, 2001 and 2002 2001 2002 Country All Women Men All Women Men Belgium 22.8 22.7 23.2 nd nd nd Finland 20.9 21.5 19.6 nd nd nd France 23.3 23.4 23.0 23.0 23.1 22.8 Greece 23.4 23.1 23.7 24.1 23.8 24.3 Netherlands* 21.1 20.8 21.8 nd nd nd Norway 21.4 22.1 19.1 nd nd nd Slovakia nd nd nd 23.5 23.7 23.1 Spain 16.8 16.5 17.8 17.4 17.2 18.0 UK 15.7 15.7 15.7 15.6 15.8 15.1 Source: EIRO. * 2000 figure. 14
The figures in table 4 should be read in conjunction with the following notes. Belgium: figures from INS/NIS labour force survey. Finland: figure from Statistics Finland labour force survey. France: figures from National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies (Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques, INSEE) household survey. Greece: figures from the ESYE labour force survey. Netherlands: figures, from CBS, exclude overtime. Norway: unofficial figures produced by FAFO on basis of Statistics Norway labour force surveys (employees temporarily absent from work not included). Slovakia: figures, from Slovak Statistical Office labour force survey, refer to second quarter. Spain: figures, from INE labour force survey, refer to second quarter of each year and to average weekly reference working time. UK: figures, from ONS labour force survey, refer to spring quarter of each year. National labour force statistics in Austria, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Poland and Sweden do not distinguish between the average actual weekly hours of part-time and full-time workers, while Portuguese statistics do so only partially and only overall figures are available for 2002 from Norway. Table 5 gives the average actual weekly hours of all workers in these countries. Table 5. Average actual weekly working hours, all workers, 2001 and 2002 2001 2002 Country All Women Men All Women Men Austria * 35.5 31.6 38.3 nd nd nd Hungary* 39.5 37.1 41.4 nd nd nd Ireland 38.2 33.0 42.2 37.8 32.8 41.9 Italy 37.0 34.0 40.0 nd nd nd Norway 32.5 28.8 35.8 33.5 29.6 37.0 Poland 40.0 37.1 42.3 40.3 nd nd Portugal* 36.6 36.0 37.3 nd nd nd Sweden 30.9 26.8 34.6 nd nd nd Source: EIRO. *2000 figures. The figures in table 5 should be read in conjunction with the following notes. Austria: figures from Statistik Austria. Hungary: figures from ILO; share of part-time employees is relatively low, so figures approximately represent hours of full-time employees Ireland: figures from Central Statistical Office (CSO); 2002 figure for September. Italy: figures from Istat. Norway: figures, from Statistics Norway labour force surveys, are for the second quarter of each year. Poland: figures, from Central Statistical Office (GUS), refer to actual average number of weekly working hours aggregated for all employed persons; 2002 figure is for end of second quarter. Portugal: figures from Quadros de Pessoal, Ministry of Labour and Solidarity. Sweden: figures from Statistics Sweden labour market survey.. Annual leave The annual duration of working time is strongly influenced by the amount of paid annual leave to which workers are entitled. Figure 7 gives the average number of days of collective agreed annual leave for 14 countries where data are available (harmonised on the basis of a five-day working week). The figures apply generally to 2002, with the only significant changes from 2001 being a two-day increase in Norway and a half-day increase in Luxembourg. The effect was to increase the average entitlement across the EU and Norway slightly from 25.7 days in 2001 to 25.9 days in 2002 (the figure stood at 25.6 days in 2000). Agreed annual leave entitlement varies considerably, from 31.3 days in the Netherlands to 20 days in Ireland. 15
Figure 7. Average collectively annual paid leave (in days), 2002 * 2000 figure; ** Average of 14 countries Source: EIRO. Figure 7 should be read in conjunction with the following notes. Austria: expressed as 30 working days, including Saturdays; figure from Chamber of Labour. Denmark: made up of five weeks annual leave, plus four days to be taken at employees' own choice or paid instead (rising to five from 2003). Finland: 25 days (or 30 days including Saturdays) applies after one year's service, 20 days (or 24 days including Saturdays) for employees with less service. Germany: figure covers whole of Germany; the figures for west Germany were 29.3 days in 2001 and 29.2 in 2002; the figures for east Germany were 28.4 days in both 2001 and 2002; data from the WSI collective agreement archive. Greece: mid-range of entitlements which vary from 20 to 25 days, depending on service. Italy: figure calculated as four weeks' leave, plus the mid-range of between five-10 days awarded as a form of working time reduction. Luxembourg: figure is an estimate. Netherlands: figure from CBS. 16
Portugal: 24 or 25 days is the agreed norm, with the 25th day sometimes dependent on factors such as age and attendance. Slovakia: figure is an estimate. Sweden: 25 days is the norm, with collective agreements often awarding one to five days' extra leave for older workers. UK: the figure, from IDS (see note to figure 1 above), refers to basic entitlement, excluding customary and servicerelated leave. All countries examined here have a statutory minimum period of paid annual leave, as set out in figure 8 below (expressed in days and harmonised on the basis of a five-day working week). The EU countries and Norway fall into two groups - those which have a 20-day minimum entitlement (21 in the case of Norway and 22 in the cases of Portugal and Spain), as laid down in the EU working time Directive, and those with a 25-day minimum entitlement (or 24 in the case of Finland). The two candidate countries for which information is available - Hungary and Slovakia - fall into the first group. Average collectively agreed annual leave exceeds the statutory minimum by four or more days in Denmark, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovakia and the UK - indicating that the law acts essentially as a safety net in these countries. Average collectively agreed annual leave and the statutory minimum are close or the same in Austria, Finland, France, Ireland and Sweden, indicating a more active role for the law. 17
Figure 8. Statutory minimum annual paid leave (in days), 2002 * Average Source: EIRO. Figure 8 should be read in conjunction with the following notes. Austria: entitlement expressed as 30 working days, including Saturdays, increases by five days after 25 years' service. Belgium: entitlement expressed as four weeks. Denmark: entitlement expressed as five weeks. Finland: entitlement is two days' leave per calendar month worked (where 14 days are worked in month). France: entitlement expressed as 30 working days or five weeks. Germany: entitlement expressed as 24 working days. Portugal: employees aged over 59 are entitled to a minimum of 25 days. Slovakia: entitlement expressed as four weeks. Spain: entitlement expressed as one month. UK: entitlement expressed as four weeks. 18
Annual working time Collectively agreed annual working time figures - which may be a more accurate measure of the duration of working time as they take into account factors such as leave, holidays and flexibility arrangements - are available from national statistical sources for a few countries, and are listed in table 6 below. Table 6. Average collectively agreed annual working hours, 2001 and 2002 Country 2001 2002 Belgium* 1,714 nd Germany 1,656 1,656 Italy 1,719 1,719 Netherlands 1,748 - Spain 1,760 1,757 Source: EIRO.; *1999 figure. The figures in table 7 should be read in conjunction with the following notes. Belgium: figure, from thefederal Planning Bureau and Ministry of Labour and Employment, covers the private sector only. Germany: figures cover the whole of Germany; figures for west Germany were 1,642 in 2001 and 1,643 in 2002; figures for east Germany were 1,724 in 2001 and 1,723 in 2002; data from the WSI collective agreement archive. Italy: figures are for industry only - 2001 figure for industry ( excluding construction) was 1,728, for private services 1,688 and for public services 1,458; 2002 figure is provisional; data from National Institute of Statistics (Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, Istat). Netherlands: figure, from Central Statistical Office, refer to full-timers only (equivalent figure for all workers was 1,380 hours), and excludes overtime. Spain: figures from MTAS labour statistics publications; 2002 figure is for September. In order to arrive at a crude annual estimate for collectively agreed annual normal working time in all countries for 2002, we have taken the figures for average collectively agreed normal weekly hours (see figure 1 above) and assumed a five-day working week and a 52-week year. From this total annual figure, we have subtracted the average collectively annual paid leave (see figure 7 above) - or, where no data are available on this point, the minimum statutory annual leave (see figure 8 above) - and the number of annual public holidays (for the EU as calculated by the UK Trades Union Congress in 2002 - using the mid-point where there are varying numbers of such holidays in a country - and for other countries from national sources). The resulting figures do not, of course, take into account factors such as overtime working, or other forms of time off and leave. They are only very rough estimates, but they allow some broad observations to be made. In the EU and Norway, average collectively agreed annual normal working time ranged from just over 1,800 hours in Greece and Ireland to under 1,600 hours in France. Belgium also had notably long hours, while Denmark and the Netherlands also had notably short hours. Greek average annual hours are some 209 hours higher (over an eighth more) than those in France - the equivalent of over five working weeks in Greece. Looking at the ranking of the 16 countries in terms of the length of their agreed working hours, the countries with the longest and shortest weekly hours are also those with the longest and shortest annual hours. However, the annual perspective results in rather different rankings for some countries than provided by the weekly hours figures. Some countries have a lower position in the `league table for normal annual hours than those for normal weekly hours because of the effects of relatively long annual leave (eg Germany and Luxembourg) or a relatively high number of public holidays (eg Finland and Portugal), or both (eg Italy). Conversely, some countries have a higher position in the table for normal annual hours than for normal weekly hours because of the effects of relatively low annual leave (eg Sweden) or both relatively low annual leave and a relatively low number of public holidays (eg Norway and the UK). The total of agreed annual leave and public holidays varies in the EU and Norway from 40 days in Italy to 29 days in Ireland - a difference of nearly 40% or over two working weeks. Other notably high-leave countries include Germany, the Netherlands and Denmark, while other notably low-leave countries include Belgium (though the statutory annual leave figure is used here, due to an absence of figures on agreed leave) the UK and Greece. It is interesting to note the wide variations in the number of public holidays, with 13 a year in Austria, Portugal and Spain and only eight in the Netherlands and nine in Ireland and Great Britain. 19
Finally, data are available for two candidate countries - Hungary and Slovakia. The agreed annual normal working hours in these countries (and especially Slovakia) are higher than in any EU Member State or Norway (though in both cases the statutory annual leave figure is used here, due to an absence of figures on agreed leave), though not that much higher than countries such as Greece and Ireland. They exceed the EU/Norway average by about 10% in the case of Slovakia and 7% in the case of Hungary. The high figures result both from relatively high normal weekly hours and relatively low levels of leave. (Mark Carley, SPIRE Associates) Table 7. Average collectively agreed normal annual working time, 2002 Country A. Weekly hours B. Weekly hours (Ax52) C.Annual leave (days) D. Public holidays (days) E. All leave (C+D) expressed as hours F. Annual hours (B-E) Slovakia 40.9 2,126.8 20.0* 10.0 245.4 1,881.4 Hungary 40.0 2,080.0 20.0* 12.0 256.0 1,824.0 Greece 40.0 2,080.0 23.0 11.0 272.0 1,808.0 Ireland 39.0 2,028.0 20.0 9.0 226.2 1,801.8 Belgium 39.0 2,028.0 20.0* 10.0 234.0 1,794.0 Finland 39.3 2,043.6 25.0 12.0 290.8 1,752.8 Sweden 38.8 2,017.6 25.0 11.0 279.4 1,738.2 Portugal 39.0 2,028.0 24.5 13.0 292.5 1,735.5 Spain 38.5 2,002.0 22.0* 13.0 269.5 1,732.5 Luxembourg 39.0 2,028.0 28.0 10.0 296.4 1,731.6 Austria 38.5 2,002.0 25.0 13.0 292.6 1,709.4 Norway 37.5 1,950.0 25.0 10.0 262.5 1,687.5 UK 37.2 1,934.4 24.5 9.0** 249.2 1,685.2 Italy 38.0 1,976.0 28.0 12.0 304.0 1,672.0 Germany 37.7 1,960.4 29.1 10.5 298.6 1,661.8 Denmark 37.0 1,924.0 29.0 9.5 284.9 1,639.1 Netherlands 37.0 1,924.0 31.3 8.0 290.8 1,633.2 France 35.7 1,856.4 25.0 11.0 257.0 1,599.4 Average 38.5 2,002.0 24.7 10.8 273.4 1,728.6 Average EU and Norway 38.2 1,986.4 25.3 10.8 275.8 1,710.6 Source: EIRO. * Statutory annual leave figure; ** Great Britain only - one extra day in 2002, norm is 8. 20