What can we learn about gender equality and care policy from academic research: The case of the Nordic countries Professor Tine Rostgaard, University of Aalborg, Denmark tr@dps.aau.dk
Overview Gender equality in the Nordic and Danish welfare model Gender equality characteristics - Denmark and the Nordic countries The Nordic/Danish model of social care for elderly The Nordic/Danish model of Early childhood education and care Tine Rostgaard 06-12-2012 2
Gender equality in the Nordic welfare model
The pursuit of gender equality is said to constitute one of the main characteristics of the Nordic welfare model, both in the labour market and in the private sphere Also as one of the main societal values. Gender equality is integral to Scandinavian citizenship Ellingsæter and Leira (2006, p. 7)
Nordic gender equality model the outcome of a long development, consisting of three important historical stages: 1. The formalization of equal rights of women and men in legislation, 2. the facilitation of women s take up of paid labour, 3. this stage - of which we perhaps still are to witness its full implementation represents women and men s full sharing of both economic and care responsibilities of the family (Eydal).
Gender equality is perceived as being not only equality of opportunity, but also equality of outcome and especially the gendered division of unpaid and paid work is central (Leira 2006).
The Nordic gender equality model implies the dual earner/dual carer model, calling for men and women s equal sharing of the responsibility of care for children and paid work But mainly so in regards to child care Here at a stage dominated by the effort to reconstruct gender and gender relations towards more active fatherhood More implicit in regards to care for the elderly
Welfare regimes SD/Universalist welfare regime: Universal state support for families, high commitment to gender equality in work and care and strong support for working parents (Nordic countries) Conservative/Social insurance welfare regime: Medium level of support for families, mainly as cash benefits. Supports male breadwinner model (Germany, France, Netherlands) Liberal/Residual welfare regime: low support for families, the few policies in place targeted at special needs groups. State does not intervene and wide support for market (UK, Australia, US, Switzerland) Mixed regime: Fragmented along occupational lines, combination of universal and private services and benefits (Southern European countries) Post-socialist model(s): Wide variation, but often Liberal/Conservative corporatist mix (Amongst other Thevenon, 2010) Tine Rostgaard 8 06-12- 2012
Denmark as an outlier among Nordic countries Different insitutionalisation of gender equality: When gender equality was written into the law in 1970s, women s/gender equality committes abolished Women s movements not represented in political parties EU membership since 1973 (Sweden since 1995, Finland since and Norway not a member). EU directives shaped Denmark s approach to gender equality. More liberal and negative gender equality discourse, focussing on conservative family values (Borschorst)
Gender equality characteristics Denmark/Nordic countries
In the European Gender Equality Index, (GE index) Denmark ranks third among 25 EU MS, (Plantenga et al, 2009). Based on: High female employment rate (ranked 5th in the sharing of paid work) Highly regulated labour market, with 37 hours work week, 5-6 weeks annual vacation, 1-2 days of in rel. to sick child, 10 care days per child. Large public sector But high part-time rate and gender segregated labour market
Labour force participation, Nordic countries
Gender equality characteristics Denmark Gender pay gap, 17% (EU average of 15%) Adjusted for factors such as educational level, work experience etc. there persist an unexplained wage gap of 2-6 % (SFI, 2008). Main explanatory factor for the gender pay gap is the segregation at the labour market, where women typically work in administration and care and men in IT and technical science. Women are also overrepresented in the public sector (Ministry of Gender Equality, 2006).
Low risk of poverty Despite substantial gender pay gap, the in-work risk of poverty is low for both men and women, at 4 % in 2007, EU27 at 8% (Eurostat). Due to high re-distribution. Denmark is placed on the 7 th position out of EU25, regarding the sharing of money between men and women, based on the combination of gender pay and gender poverty gap in the European Gender Equality Index (GE index) (Plantenga et al, 2009).
Underrepresented in politics Women are underrepresented in politics, with fewer women than men in the Danish Parliament and in local politics. As a consequence, Denmark takes up a position well behind Sweden and Finland in a European comparison of equal sharing of decision-making, placing Denmark on the 9 th rank, among countries such as Germany and Estonia (Plantenga, 2009).
Equal sharing of time Danish men and women spend in total approximately the same amount of time on the combination of housework and paid work Women spend 1 hour more daily than men on housework and men spend 1 hour more daily than women on the job. One explanation is that more women are working part-time and they also often have shorter transport hours (SFI, 2002). In a comparative perspective, the relatively equal sharing of time between men and women places Denmark in the lead position in a comparison of EU 25 MS (Plantenga et al, 2009).
European Gender Equality Index Equal Equal Equal Equal sharing of sharing of sharing of sharing of paid work money decision- time making power 5 th 7 th 9 th 1 st Source: Plantenga et al, 2009
90,00 Work-family balance, % 80,00 70,00 60,00 50,00 40,00 30,00 20,00 10,00 0,00 Employees working very long hours Employment rate of women with children Time devoted to leisure and personal care OECD: Better Life Index 18
30 Total score work-family balance 25 20 15 10 Total score work-family balance 5 0 19
The Nordic social care model: Denmark as a case
Reconciliation in The Adult worker model The emphasis on the adult worker model where women and men are assumed equally employable, has given impetus to a renegotiation of formal and informal care responsibilities (Lewis, 2002) Care policy laggard has led to a caring deficit =>Over the last 20 years the reconciliation of work and family life has emerged as a policy priority for the European Union.
The Nordic social care model Universality (Antonnen) Public, formal and de-centralised approach (organisation, regulation and financing);tax-based Increasingly market based and increasing recognition of informal care (elder care, Rostgaard & Szebehely). Services but also cash Professionalised, affordable, of high quality, and generous/abundant services High coverage and take-up rate, no stigma associated High quality of services: professionalised, regulated, relatively well paid Promoting equality of outcome Gender equality and the dual earner/dual carer model (day care, Eydal and Rostgaard) 22
Trends in social care De-familisation (Esping-Andersen 1996; Lister 1998) Commodification of care (Ungerson 2005; Ostner/Knijn 2005). Re-familisation (Leira, 2002)/informalisation (Szebehely) Semi-formal care (Pfau-Effinger and Geissler 2005). Marketisation and privatisation (Szebehely) 23
Forms of care work, variation across countries Forms of care work Formal care work high medium Low Semi-formal care work high low Undeclared work for care high medium low European societies Denmark, Finland, Germany, Austria, U.K. Spain Germany Denmark, Finland, Spain, U.K. Spain Germany, U.K., Denmark, Finland Pfau-Effinger, FIWE project
Formalisation/informalisation Substitution of informal (unpaid) care by formal arrangements of care to a degree hitherto not experienced Informal care increasingly managed and controlled by state/municipal authorities. The Nordic countries have sometimes been accused of having been so charmed by their abundant public care services that they have ignored the significance of informal care (Kröger, 2005) 25
Source:Szebehely 26
Dependant people have to rely too much on their relatives Country % of adult citizens that agree Denmark 42 Finland 50 Ireland 65 Ireland 65 Germany 66 UK 67 Sweden 70 Austria 70 EU27 71 Italy 75 Tine Rostgaard 27 Source: Eurobarometer 2007 06-
Characteristics of Danish care for the older persons Municipal responsibility for organisation and provision. Mainly local tax financing Politically administered at central level by Ministries of Social Affairs, not Health High coverage and take-up rate, no stigma associated High quality: professionalised, regulated Informal care by spouse/partner, but not often by other relatives Service approach: No major cash for care schemes, apart from care for terminally ill Tine Rostgaard 28 06-12- 2012
Tine Rostgaard 29 06-12- 2012 Main social services for the elderly in Denmark Main principle: ageing in place Home help free choice and free of charge Nursing home payment of rent, and use of service (choice of different items), max. payment Service housing Transport scheme Adaptation of the home Meals on wheels Carer s allowance Day centres Preventive visits Re-enablement Senior citizens' council and complaints boards
Social expenditure on elder care Source: Huber et al. 2009, based on OECD, NOSOSCO, Eurostat and national sources. Tine Rostgaard 06-12-2012 30
Social expenditure on elder care Weight of home care/institutional care in expenditure: DK: 75/25 CAN: 20/80 Tine Rostgaard 06-12-2012 31
% 65+ in institutional long term care Source: Huber et al, 2009 Tine Rostgaard 06-12-2012 32
% 65+ with long term care at home Source: Huber et al, 2009 Tine Rostgaard 06-12-2012 33
Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC)
Tine Rostgaard 35 06-12- 2012 ECEC models Universalist countries of Northern Europa: Societal approach to daycare encompasses the full-employment paradigm. State provides parental leave, ECEC, and family-friendly jobs. Central Europe: Long leave schemes with low or no pay. Germany as an exception Countries belonging to residual/liberal model as in UK/Ireland: Encouragement of female labour take up but no public and/or subsidized provision of day care Eastern Europe: Day care replaced by extended leave schemes Unlike other policy fields, overall increase in spending on ECEC (Lohmann, Rostgaard and Spiess, 2009)
ECEC Denmark main services and cash Leave: 4 weeks maternity leave before birth, 14 weeks after birth 2 weeks paternity leave following birth 32 weeks parental leave = 48 weeks after birth, of which 2 taken together All weeks compensated with apprx. 380 pounds weekly/full wages ECEC: 0-2 years: Nurseries, age-integrated, family day care, apprx. cost 180 pounds monthly, acc. to income, 7-17:00 3-6 years: Kindergarten, age-integrated, apprx. 140 pounds monthly, acc. to income, 7-17:00 6-14 years: after-school care, apprx. 100 pounds monthly, acc. to income, 7-17:00 Home care allowance
Child care policy configuration Child care policies and take-up for pre-school children in various age groups, Denmark and Sweden, 2007 Denmark Sweden 0-1 year Paid parental leave (48* weeks), with no father quota Day care provision (17%) Paid parental leave (69 weeks), with 8 weeks father quota Day care provision (-) 1-2 year Day care provision (90%) (Municipal schemes of cash for care) Paid parental leave (Municipal schemes of cash for care) Day care provision (70%) 3-5 year Day care (96%) Day care provison (97%) Source: NOSOSKO, 2009. *62 weeks with part-time leave. In addition, 4 weeks prior to birth.
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Proportion of parental leave periods taken by fathers, 1997-2007, Nordic countries 35 30 25 20 15 Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden 10 5 0 1997 1998 1999 2001 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Source: Haataja, 2009
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Does parenthood affect employment?
Effect on maternal employment?
Does ECEC affect fertility?
Tine Rostgaard 48 06-12- 2012 How is the child cared for best? Share of people who think that the form of childcare is the best way of organising childcare for children aged 0-3, % (Multiple answers possible) Public and private day care centre/preschool Childcare Childcare by both predominantly the mother and by the mother the father Childcare by grand-parents or other relatives Denmark 71 16 28 10 Germany 34 38 49 20 Netherlands 47 18 52 34 UK 30 27 40 20 EU27 44 33 39 23 Source: Eurobarometer, 2010
Tine Rostgaard 49 06-12- Source: Eurobarometer, 2010 2012 Affordability and quality Share of people who think that: Child care is affordable (Very + Fairly) Child care is of good quality (very good + fairly good) Support for public and private day care centre/preschool Denmark 59 81 71 Germany 50 62 34 Netherlands 40 71 47 UK 30 51 30 EU27 41 54 44
Summing up Nordic countries generally social service states with aim to faciliate gender egalitarian dual earner/dual carer model Gender equality also a shared societal value (Still) societal responsibility for the provision of care The provision of high quality, affordable and subsidized social care enables women to take up work and facilitates reconciliation of work and family life Extensive family policy does not appear to run counter to women s engagement in paid labour Although tendency for horisontal and vertical labour market segregation The active fatherhood policies have succeded in involving more fathers in the rearing of the young child, by increasing fathers take-up of leave. Father quota efficient policy instrument Tine Rostgaard 06-12-2012 50
Thank you! Tine Rostgaard 06-12-2012 51