Frank Biermann Saving the Atmosphere International Law, Developing Countries and Air Pollution PETER LANG Europäischer Verlag der Wissenschaften
Contents Foreword by Professor Dr Udo E Simonis v Preface vii Contents Abbreviations ix xv Introduction 1 I. The Legal Status of the Atmosphere 5 A. The Legal Status of Airspace 5 1. Sovereignty over Airspace 5 2. Delimitation of Airspace 6 B. The Legal Status of the Atmosphere 8 1. Shared Resources 9 2. Common Heritage of Humankind 10 3. Common Concern 13 ix
. Control of Atmospheric Pollution as Legal Duty of States 17 A. Prevention of Transboundary Pollution as a General Rule of International Law 17 B. International Treaty Law on the Protection of the Stratospheric Ozone Layer 21 1. Introduction 21 2. The 1985 Vienna Convention 23 3. Specific Duties of Industrialised Countries Under the 1987 Montreal Protocol 26 a) Introduction 26 b) Reduction and Elimination of the Emission of Ozone-Depleting Substances 30 i) Chlorofluorocarbons 30 ii) Halons 32 iii) Carbon Tetrachloride 33 iv) Methyl Chloroform 33 v) Hydrochlorofluorocarbons 34 vi) Hydrobromofluorocarbons 35 vii) Methyl Bromide 36 c) General Exceptions 37 i) Prior ConstructionofFacüities 37 ii) Industrial Rationalisation 37 iii) Satisfying Basic Domestic Needs of Developing Countries 38 d) Legal Status of Eastern European States 39 4. Specific Duties of Developing Countries 40 5. Has the 'Hole' Been Closed? 42
C. International Treaty Law on the Protection of the Global Climate 43 1. Greenhouse Politics 43 2. The Duty to Protect the Global Climate Under the 1992 Framework Convention 47 a) General Provisions 47 i) General Objective of the Framework Convention 47 ii) Inventories 49 iii) Programmes Addressing Emissions 50 iv) Co-operation 51 aa) Co-operation in Mitigating and Adapting to Climate Change 51 bb) Co-operation in Research 52 cc) Education, Training and Public Awareness 53 b) Specific Duties of Industrialised Countries 54 i) Limiting Emissions 55 ii) Enhancing Reservoirs and Sinks 57 iii) Joint Implementation 58 iv) Legal Status of Eastern European States 59 c) Legal Status of Developing Countries 60 i) Specific Duties of Developing Countries 60 ii) Specific Rights of Developing Countries 62 aa) Arising From the Adverse Effects of Climate Change 62 bb) Arising From Measures to Prevent Climate Change 63 d) Future Agreements on Global Warnung: The Conference of the Parties 64 D. Further Treaty Regimes to Protect the Atmosphere 68 1. Marine Pollution Treaties 68 2. The Prevention of Transboundary Air Pollution in Europe 73 3. War and the Protection of the Atmosphere 77 a) Partial Test Ban Treaty 77 b) Environmental Modification Convention 79 c) The 1977 Geneva Protocol I to the 1949 Geneva Conventions 80 XI
E. Environmental Treaty Regulations as Emerging Customary International Law 82 1. Specific Duties under Environmental Treaties as Customary Rules of Law 83 2. Chlorofluorocarbon Emission as International Crime aadjus cogensi 88 a) Obligations erga omnes 89 b) Peremptory Norms (jus cogens) 91 c) International Crimes 92 III. International Solidarity Rights: The Duty of Financial and Technology Transfer 95 A. Introduction 95 B. Financial Transfers as Reparation for Wrongful Conduct 99 C. Financial Transfers Based on Treaty Obligations 102 1. Financial Transfers to Protect the Ozone Layer 102 a) Introduction 102 b) The Multilateral Ozone Fund 103 2. Financial Transfers to Protect the Global Climate 106 a) The General Obligation Under Article 4 (3) 106 b) The Financial Mechanism Under Article 11 107 D. The Duty of Technology Transfer 109 1. Technologies Preventing Ozone-Depletion 110 2. Technologies Preventing Climate Change 113 E. Conclusion: An International Legal Right of States - to Assistance? 114 XU
IV. Encroaching Sovereignty: Decision-Making and Enforcement in the Law of the Atmosphere 121 A. Decision-Making and Non-Compliance Mechanisms vis-ä-vis Treaty Parties 121 1. Ozone Regime 121 2. Climate Regime 124 B. Enforcement vis-ä-vis Third Parties 126 1. Litigation 126 2. Enforcement by Counter-Measures 132 a) Reciprocal Remedies 132 b) Retorsion 133 c) Enforcement vis-ä-vis Non-Parties Under Article 4 of the Montreal Protocol 134 i) Bulk Controlled Substances 135 ii) Products Containing Controlled Substances 136 iii) Products Produced with, but not Containing, Controlled Substances 137 iv) Export of Relevant Technologies 138 v) Assessment 138 vi) Trade Restrictions Regarding Greenhouse Gases? 139 d) Reprisais 140 e) Multilateral Counter-Measures 143 3. Enforcement Through Institutional Reform? 145 V. Conclusion 147 A. Alteration of the Atmosphere as Common Concern of Humankind 147 xm
B. The Tasks Ahead 149 VI. References 157 A. Treaties and Related Documents 157 1. Treaties 157 2. Acts of International Organisations and Conferences 160 3. TableofCases 162 B. Bibliography 164 xiv