pp. 80-83 Chapter Summary. The 1 dynasty in the 8th century B.C.E. lost control of its vassals. Internal political disorder was increased by nomadic pressure. The unstable times eventually led to the emergence of a more complex classical society. Political stabilization began in the 3rd century B.C.E. with the victories of Shi Huangdi of the 2 dynasty. Unwise policies by the Qin rulers caused revolts ending with the emergence of the 3 dynasty in 207 B.C.E. The Han,ruling over 400 years, reestablished and expanded the extent of Chinese civilization and created a lasting sense of Chinese identity. They founded an enduring 4 whose members were a major influence on social and cultural development. Philosophical Remedies for the Prolonged Crisis of the Later Zhou. The continuing disorder marking the 5 of the Zhou dynasty prompted debate over appropriate remedies. Widespread warfare awarded societal value to military skills and depressed the worth of the shi. Aristocratic power grew while the shi fell to minor occupations. Rituals and court etiquette were replaced by rough nomadic manners. Warfare consumed state resources and public works, including dikes and 6, were ruined. Peasants were 7 heavily and conscripted into the military. The need for military materials stimulated commerce, helping the growth of a prosperous merchant class with an important role in society. By the end of the Zhou period, China supported larger 8 centers than any other contemporary civilization. Confucius and the Restoration of the Shi. By the 5th century B.C.E., thinkers, including Confucius, sought ways to create a stable society and political structure. Confucius, a member of a poor 9 family, became a traveling teacher whose political and philosophical ideas attracted followers. He was a social philosopher concerned with the need to reestablish order and harmony in China; he thought that achieving order depended upon rulers accepting the advice of 10 men women were excluded who were awarded power because of their moral excellence. Such men, recruited from the shi, would gain wisdom through 11 and, in principle, could be from any social class. The Confucian Gentleman. Confucius thought that the superior man defended his decisions against all opposition. Rulers should receive deference, but the shi should criticize them for 12 their subjects welfare. The shi gentleman was a generalist equally accomplished in public and private aspects of life. With such men, said Confucius, China would be peaceful, its social struggles over. pp. 84-87 The Heirs of Confucius. The most important division among Confucius s disciples was between 13 and Sunzi. Mencius believed that humans were good by nature and that government should develop that goodness. He stressed that the consent of the common people was the basis of political power, and that they had the right to 14 oppressive rulers. Sunzi thought that humans by nature were lazy and 15, thus requiring a strong and authoritarian government.education could improve people, he thought, but he rejected the idea that government was based on their consent. The later 16 school of thought embraced his views. Daoist Alternatives. The philosopher 17 offered an alternative to Confucianism. Although he urged rulers to cultivate patience, selflessness, and concern for the welfare of all creatures, Laozi thought that a strong state and absolute ethical prescriptions were not significant in solving human suffering. Laozi instead advocated a retreat from 18 into nature where individuals
could attune with the 19, or cosmic force. Some of his followers, particularly among the shi, followed Laozi s stress on 20. Others mixed his ideas with magic and eroticism and sought immortality. The Triumph of the Qin and Imperial Unity. The western state of Qin, led by 21, one of the many competing rivals striving to supplant the Zhou, 22 China at theend of the 3rd century. Qin rulers had nomadic origins and were regardedas barbarians by other Chinese. The Triumph of the Qin and Imperial Unity. The Qin rulers introduced critical reforms strengthening their state. The Qin produced better 23 weapons and tools. Peasants were freed from bondage to lords and allowed to hold land. The change weakened vassal warriors and allowed the Qin to employ shi in a loyal bureaucracy. Freed peasants enlarged armies made more efficient by shi management. The nomadic heritage of the Qin helped in 24 tactics, especially in the use of massed cavalry and the crossbow. The Legalist Sanction. The political centralization of the Qin was supported by statesmen known as Legalists. Shang Yang and other thinkers argued that the power of rulers should be 25, but subject to the law. Legalists considered that people existed to serve the state, andthat strict laws and harsh 26 were required. Shi Huangdi, Emperor of China. Shi Huangdi favored Legalist doctrine and utilized harsh measures against opponents. By 221 B.C.E. he unified China under the rule of the Qin. Regional fortresses and the weapons of local warriors were destroyed. Formerly independent states were replaced by provinces ruled by 27. Surviving aristocrats and rich merchants had to live in the 28, Xianyang. State officials developed a standard script, coinage, and unified weights and 29. Shi Huangdi expanded earlier constructions to create a defensive barrier against nomadic invaders, the 30. Other projects, also employing forcibly recruited peasants,included canals and roadways. pp. 88-93 The Collapse of a Tyrannical but Pivotal Regime. Shi Huangdi s harsh policies created 31 among both the shi and peasantry. All but a few state-approved books were ordered destroyed. Building projects stimulated a rising that ended the dynasty in 207 B.C.E. Despite its short rule, the Qin marked a watershed in Chinese history. Shi Huangdi unified China, ruling through a strong centralized bureaucracy. The power of the 32 aristocracy ended. The building of 33 and canals, the shelter of the Great Wall, and a unified 34 all helped to hold the territory together. A sound foundation was ready for the succeeding Han dynasty. Thinking Historically: Sunzi and the Shift from Ritual Combat to Real War. The development of classical civilizations, with their agricultural surpluses, increased populations, and improved technologies advanced the business of making 35. More people fought and suffered during hostilities. In general, warfare was not organized, but subject to ritual rules. Duels between warrior champions were important. Change came during the late Zhou period, when Sunzi, advisor to a warrior ruler, produced a great classic of military theory, The Art of War. He argued that wars should be fought to increase the power of the 36, and should be waged with great efficiency. The result was a lasting transformation in the tactics of warfare. The Greeks of the same era independently developed similar patterns.
The Han Dynasty and the Foundations of China s Classical Age. The Han era, a time of great creativity and innovation, emerged from the disorder following the collapse of the Qin. 37, a peasant village headman leading an army of soldiers, bureaucrats, and peasants, became its first ruler in 202 B.C.E. The Restoration of Imperial Control. After a brief return to the vassalage system, Liu Bang, officially known as Gaozu, relied on the shi to create a more centralized administration. Subsequent rulers, especially 38, continued his policies by weakening the position of landholding aristocrats and granting greater authority to appointed officials. Han Expansion. The military might enlarged the Han Empire and strengthened its 39. The Hsiung-nu nomads initially were defeated, but they later returned to raiding China when rulers were weak. Han armies extended Chinese rule to northern 40 and southward into Vietnam. Many of the conquered peoples 41 to Chinese civilization. The Revenge of the Shi. The Legalists, influential under the Qin, were replaced by 42. By the end of the 2nd century B.C.E. the shi were preeminent among ruling classes. Confucianism became the dominant thought system in Chinese civilization for the next 2000 years. Knowledge of Confucius s teachings was required for employment in 43 service; an imperial 44 was founded to train future officials. Education, Examinations, and Shi Dominance. Confucian classics were the centerpiece of the educational system. An examination process was established for entering the bureaucracy. Since education was expensive, the system effectively excluded almost all 45 and served the shi and landholders. Even though many political positions remained essentially hereditary or appointed, the Han had initiated the concept of a professional civil service where holding office depended more 46 on than birth. The Emergence of the Scholar-Gentry. Three main social strata gained official recognition: the shi, ordinary free subjects, and an underclass (the 47 ). Each had many occupation a land status divisions. Local landlord families increasingly were linked to shi by marriage to create a new class, the 48. It controlled both land and office-holding and had a base in towns and rural regions. Scholar-gentry families lived in large, comfortable, 49 familycompounds. Some families played major roles in society for millennia. pp. 93-100 Class and Gender Roles in Han Society. 50, especially from higher social classes, had more freedom in Han times than under later dynasties. Marriages were arranged as alliances between important families. A bride entered her husband s household, but her relatives ensured good treatment. Widows were permitted to remarry. Upper-class women often were educated. Extended family living was not common among the peasantry; women worked in households and in town markets. At all levels, however, women were 51 to men. Their most vital social function was to produce 52 children. Elder males dominated households and males received the greater share of family property. Political positions were reserved for males.
Peasant Life. Few peasants produced more than what was required for 53 and taxes. Those with a large enough holding could sell their surplus and live well. Poorer peasants with little or no land labored for their landlords in conditions of poverty. Technological development eased labor burdens through inventions such as the shoulder horse 54 and wheelbarrow; other improvements included iron tools, irrigation networks, and cropping patterns. Population pressure was relieved by 55 of unexploited hill and forest regions, and newly conquered lands in the south. Some peasants turned to banditry, or became 56. Many, for economic and physical protection, formed 57 societies that might, in stressful times, provide a basis for rebellion. The Han Capital at Xian. The urban growth of the Zhou era continued under the Han., 58 the model for later imperial cities, was laid out on a 59 pattern, roadways defining its major quarters. Walls with towers and gates encircled the city. About 100,000 people lived within the walls, with as many or more residing nearby. The imperial family lived in a forbidden city 60 from the rest of the citizens. The complex was surrounded by administrative buildings and the residences of the scholar-gentry and aristocrats. Towns and Traders. In this period, China probably had the world s most urbanized civilization. There were many towns of over 61. Most were walled, and many were administrative centers. Others were centers for mining, industry, or commerce. Under the Han, trade expanded by land and 62 routes into central Asia, south China, southeast Asia, and India. Large firms controlled and grew wealthy from the trade. They also profited from lending and investing in mining and other activities. Despite their wealth, merchants were barred, because of scholar gentry influence, from 63 political power or social status. A Genius for Invention and Artisan Production. The Han significantly advanced the Chinese aptitude for invention, becoming the most 64 innovative of all classical civilizations. Innovations included the introduction of the brush pen and paper, rudders, 65, and watermills powering mills and workshops. Improved techniques appeared in mining, 66 making, and ceramics. The advances led to the growth of a mostly urban artisan and manufacturing class., Artisans although relegated by the scholar-gentry to a social status inferiorto peasants, surpassed them in living standards. The Arts and Sciences of the Han Era. Art was largely decorative and geometric. 67 was a highly praised form. Painting was less developed than under later dynasties, but bronzes and ceramics established a lasting standard. Work in the sciences focused on 68 applications. Astronomers developed a 365.5-day calendar and calculated planetary movement. Medical advances came in disease diagnosis, herbal and drug remedies, and acupuncture. In 69, the practical focus led to discoveries in acoustics and measurement standards. Imperial Crisis and Han Restoration. The successors of Han Wudi were not efficient rulers, losing 70 of affairs to the families of emperors wives. One of them, the Wang family, seized power in 9 C.E. Emperor Wang Mang s reform efforts alienated the scholar-gentry and peasants. In 23 C.E. he was overthrown and the Han dynasty was restored. The Later Han and Imperial Collapse. The restored dynasty did not reach the peak attained by earlier rulers. Political decline was continuous, and central authority crumbled as court factions,
the scholar-gentry, emperors wives, eunuchs, and regional lords 71 for power. The dynastyended in 200 C.E. GLOBAL CONNECTIONS: Classical China and the World. The Qin and Han dynasties established the basic components of Chinese civilization. China emerged as one of the most creative and influential world civilizations. Successful agrarian development supported a large 72, flourishing urban centers, and creative elites. A wide range of basic technologies was pioneered and later spread widely into other regions. From central Asia to the Pacific, China spread the components of its political, social, technical, and artistic form.
1. Zhou 2. Qin 3. Han 4. bureaucracy 5. decline 6. canals 7. taxed 8. urban 9. shi 10. superior 11. education 12. neglecting 13. Mencius 14. overthrow 15. evil 16. Legalist 17. Laozi 18. society 19. Dao 20. meditation 21. Shi Huangdi 22. unified 23. metal 24. military 25. absolute 26. punishments 27. bureaucrats 28. capital 29. measures 30. Great Wall 31. opposition 32. feudal 33. roads 34. currency 35. war 36. state 37. Liu Bang 38. Han Wudi 39. borders 40. Korea 41.assimilated 42.Confucians 43.government 44.university 45.peasants 46.merit 47.mean people 48.scholar-gentry 49.extended 50.Women 51.Subordinate 52.male 53.subsistence 54.collar 55.cultivation 56.beggars 57.secret 58.Xian 59.grid 60.separate 61.10,000 62.sea 63.gaining 64.technologically 65.compasses 66.silk 67.Calligraphy 68.practical 69.mathematics 70.control 71.dueled 72.population