Lecturer: Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, UG Contact Information: ddzorgbo@ug.edu.gh College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 2016/2017
Session Overview Overview Undoubtedly, Lukacs and Gramsci by their works have moved the focus of Marxist discussions of capitalism from the substructure/economy to the superstructure. In particular, they are criticizing the ideas of capitalist culture and they are joined in this approach by the critical theorists, who are also referred to in the literature as the Frankfurt School. This session introduces the main scholars of this school and their ideas. Goals and Objectives Identify the leading figures in the Frankfurt School Explain their views about capitalist society Determine why they are pessimistic about the revolutionary transformation of capitalist society Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 2
Session Outline The key topics to be covered in this session are as follows: Topic One: The Frankfurt School Topic Two: Critique of the Culture Industry of Capitalist Societies Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 3
Reading List Calhoun, Craig, Joseph Gerteis, James Moody, Seven Pfaff, and Idermohan Virk (2002). Contemporary Sociological Theory. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Cuff E. C., W. W. Sharrock & D. W. Francis (1990), Perspectives in Sociology. 3 rd Edition. London: Unwin Hyman Edles, Laura Desfor and Scott Appelrouth (2010). Sociological Theory in the contemporary era: Text and readings. Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Sage Farganis, James. (2011). Readings in Social Theory: The Classic Tradition to Post-Modernism. 6 th Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. Turner, Jonathan H. (1998). The Structure of Sociological Theory. 6 th Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Ritzer, George (2008). Sociological Theory. 8 th Edition or any newer or earlier editions. New York: McGraw Hill. Wallace, Ruth A. and Alison Wolf (1995) Contemporary Sociological Theory: Continuing the Classical Tradition. 4 th Edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 4
Topic One: The Frankfurt School This school derives its name from the Institute of Social Research established at the University Topic of Frankfurt, Two: Germany in 1921. It was established to re-assess Marxist theory and practice with a focus on alienation, domination in modern capitalist society, the rise of anti-semitism and the revolutionary consciousness of the working class. It drew a diverse group of scholars together who although sharing a critical Marxist perspective, had different academic backgrounds and interests and sometimes disagreed among themselves. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 5
The Frankfurt School (cont d) Notwithstanding their differences, they initiated a macro theory we call critical theory. The best-known critical theorists are Max Horkeheimer (1895-1973), Theodor Wiesengrund Adorno (1903-1969), Herbert Marcus (1898-1979) and Erich Fromm (1900-1980). Their main aim is to develop a critical theory that describes and analyzes modern capitalist societies in relation to the past and in doing so enable those who were oppressed to realize the forces that caused their oppression. In addition, their analysis is to show how oppression can be overcome with new emancipatory conceptualizations and practices Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 6
The Frankfurt School (cont d) It can be argued that since the 17 th and 18 th centuries (the historical period of Enlightenment and also thus the beginning of the modern era), the belief that the development of science and technology can emancipate humanity from ignorance and oppression and thereby improve human life and conditions--human progress or what is sometimes called the project of Enlightenment was projected as an ideal by many philosophers. From their critical and insightful analyses of the late capitalist societies, the critical theorists are concerned with the how the promise of Enlightenment rationality and progress have been compromised in modern capitalist societies. The major problem for modern society was according to Horkheimer, is the fact that reason has liquidated itself as an agency of ethical, moral, and religious insight (see Adams and Sydie, 2002:63). Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 7
Topic Two: Critique of the Culture Industry of Capitalist Societies The critical theorists just like Lukacs and Gramsci criticize the culture of capitalist societies bourgeois culture as they call it. For example, they examine how modern classical music, popular songs (pop music) or jazz to show explain how as Cuff et al. (1990:119) these expressed, circulated and communicated a debased consciousness, one which would, at least, mislead people about the realities they lived under, and would sentimentalize and falsify them. They are critical of the way in which reason and thought are subordinated to the requirements of capitalism and to indicate their objections to this, the use the phrase instrumental reason. This concept means that reason has been domesticated by capitalism, that is, the dominance of capitalist rationality over everything has been pushed reason out. Our reasoning powers and thoughts are now subordinated to the requirements of capitalism and subsequently directed towards the investigation of those problems which are effectively capitalist s problems and which are therefore substantially problems of instrumental, i.e. problems of controlling things and turning them to the purposes of capitalist exploitation. The role of the sciences including the social sciences is not to critique or call into question the whole exploitative capitalist system but to serve the system by making everything amenable to the control of capitalism. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 8
Critique of Capitalist Societies (cont d) In effect, capitalism s quest to rationalize every aspects of society as predicted by Max Weber s concept of rationalization has even resulted in the subjugation of the knowledge industry and the sciences or all reasoning powers to the requirements of capitalism. The critical theorists would say that the social sciences, (including sociology) as practiced today are not critical of capitalist society, they are practiced to serve capitalism or are instruments for capitalist domination and oppression. The natural sciences develop science and technology to enable capitalism to subject the natural environment to its demands; the social sciences in turn develop knowledge to help capitalism control society, relationships and workers. For example, instead of exposing the exploitation, alienation and domination that workers suffer under capitalism, the social sciences are concerned with issues like workers dissatisfaction and making recommendation for managing workers or for cosmetic reforms in order to make the exploitation of worker continuously possible. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 9
Critique of Capitalist Societies (cont d) Disciplines and sub-disciplines such as Industrial Sociology, Human Relations School, the call for motivational packages for workers, the development of techniques for worker-employee management, the management of industrial conflicts/disputes, etc. have all been developed by the social sciences to make exploitative capitalism acceptable to workers. Critical theorists see their role to expose these oppressive tendencies in the mass media and the arts that nurture false consciousness among the working class and not to work to adapt people to or enhance the workings of capitalism or the status quo. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 10
Critique of Capitalist Societies (cont d) Whereas we can discern some sense of optimism from Lukacs and Gramsci about how the workers can be led by a vanguard party or changes in the educational system to fulfill their historic mission of socialist revolution, critical theorists are pessimistic about such a revolution occurring at all. Thus their work has been concerned with simply denouncing the shallowness and emptiness of modern capitalist society. Their view is that the working class has been effectively incorporated into the capitalist system, so capitalist domination is now complete; there is no internal challenge to it, except for the critical complaints of a few intellectuals expressed in critical theory. To the critical theorists, contemporary domination does not simply mean that the bourgeoisie dominates the workers and for that it is the bourgeoisie that has triumphed. Instead, the process of rationalization had triumphed over all classes, including the bourgeoisie. The process of extending scientific and technical control over all aspects of human life has acquired a new dimension a life of its own. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 11
Critique of Capitalist Societies (cont d) Why the critical theorists are pessimistic is that capitalism has generated so much wealth and has filled the bellies and minds of workers with food and the culture of materialism and consumerism, consequently workers have become satisfied and irremediably contented and cannot see the necessity of socialism. Marx s prediction of pauperization of the workers has been mitigated by the development of the affluent society and worker. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 12
Critique of Capitalist Societies (cont d) Although to the critical theorists the problems of alienation, exploitation and domination continue to exist in capitalist societies, control is now indirect, subtle, and persuasive so that people are lulled into thinking and wanting to do or doing things that they would otherwise not do. Dominance has become increasingly friendly and gentle which Marcuse captures in the phrase repressive tolerance. The system does not only deceive people to do things they would otherwise not do, but it even tolerates attack on itself and then manages these attacks rationally or turns them into saleable and commercially profitable businesses. The title of Marcuse s book, One Dimensional Man, significantly portrays the essence of this situation; namely the dominance of the status quo comes about through the creation of a culture that only permits people to think one way: they are one-dimensional. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 13
Critique of Capitalist Societies (cont d) We can apply this understanding in the African context. For example, underdevelopment in many African countries can be attributed to the workings of an unjust and exploitative capitalist economic order that benefits mainly the developed world, yet dominant western nations will attribute the problems of underdevelopment (poverty, illiteracy, child labour, ignorance, unemployment, etc.) to population explosion and then turn round to impose on African countries population control programmes with drugs manufactured from the Western world family planning or create international NGOs with appropriate development discourse to come and solve the numerous problems of underdevelopment in Africa. Today, western control of African economies comes through such ideas as development partners, democracy, rule of law the importance of developing a favourable investment climate, the development of market economies, trade liberalization, etc. so that those whose actions and inactions at the global level to a great extent create poverty and underdevelopment are perceived by Africans as generous, kind and friendly to Africa s development course. In the process Africans are lulled into participating willingly in projects and programmes that actually exploit and underdevelop them. In the absence of combative, nationalistic leadership with alternative development programmes, there is no effective opposition to the dominance of the western world. Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 14
Session Summary In this session you have learnt: About the history of the Frankfurt School or critical theory To identify the key scholars within critical theory The differentiate the ideas and concerns of critical theorists from Lukacs and Gramsci as well as Marx To know their criticism of the Culture Industry of Capitalist Societies To show why there not hopeful that the socialist revolution would ever happened About Marx s view of the structure of society that society is made of substructure and superstructure. The economy is the substructure of society and the remaining social institutions: religion, family, politics, education, law and other belief systems constitute the superstructure of society. That the state in capitalist society defends mostly the bourgeoisie and the economically dominant group also the producers of knowledge in society. That Georg Lukacs and Antonio Gramsci are among the first group of people to revise Marxism and the focused their analysis on the superstructure of society and they introduced the notions of Reification and Hegemony respectively to explain why the proletariat could not have liberate themselves unless domination is exposed or the proletariat are led by a revolutionary party That the critical theorists or the Frankfurt School also focused on the superstructure and argued quite pessimistically that the proletariat have lost interest in the revolutionary struggle because capitalism has completely dominated their thinking capacity and has also given them material prosperity Dr. Dan-Bright S. Dzorgbo, Sociology Dept. UG Slide 15