Securing the Republic Chapter 8 AP US History
Learning Objectives: Students will be able to Clearly explain the ways in which British attempts to assert tighter control over its North American colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self-government led to a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War. Evaluate the ways in which the American Revolution s democratic and republican ideals inspired new experiments with different forms of government. Evaluate how migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries, and trade intensified conflicts among peoples and nations.
Growing Pains: What was America like in the 1790s? Population was nearly 4 million (census) and was doubling every 25 years. Approximately 90% of Americans lived on farms Cities with growing populations: Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Charleston, and Baltimore. Roughly 5% of Americans lived east of the Allegheny mountains: New States: Vermont (1791), Kentucky (1792), Tennessee (1796), Ohio (1803) What about America s finances? Financially, were are still in a precarious position! Public debt was enormous and revenue had significantly declined. Worthless paper money (both state and national) was in heavy circulation. What other problems do America s founders face? America is trying to build a Republic on a grand scale. We had overthrown two constitutions in 12 years: British agreements and the Articles of Confederation Foreign challenges from both Britain and Spain continued to threaten unity.
President Washington: The Constitution created a general framework of government but it was up to the 1 st president & the 1 st Congress to fill in the details: The government in 1789 had no federal court system, navy, or tax collection system. George Washington was unanimously drafted as president by the Electoral College in 1789 he is the ONLY presidential nominee to ever have this honor! Why Washington? Many believe that Congress was willing to give the presidency to Washington because of his respectability. Washington took the oath of office on April 30, 1789 in New York. John Adams was sworn in as Vice President.
Washington s Cabinet Precedent: Consulting of cabinet members (department heads) in order to make decisions. Constitution does not mention a cabinet (loose construction move) The cabinet becomes an integral part of the unwritten constitution What are the cabinet positions? Initially, there were only 3 positions: Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, and Secretary of War Attorney General was added after the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1789 Who filled these positions in Washington s Cabinet? Sec. of State = Thomas Jefferson Sec. of the Treasury = Alexander Hamilton Sec. of War = Henry Knox Attorney General = Edmund Randolph Washington s cabinet was characterized by bickering! Hamilton and Jefferson did not get along!!!
Alexander Hamilton v. Thomas Jefferson Hamilton believed a strong central government was best for America: He wanted the U.S. to grow as an industrial power with less dependency on Europe. He wanted the U.S. economy to mirror the English economy. He feared democracy would lead to anarchy; power should be in hands of wealthy citizens. Loose Constructionist Jefferson believed that a limited government would preserve liberty: He saw the U.S. as an agrarian nation with active foreign trade to buy manufactured goods. He trusted the common people over the elitist aristocracy. He favored close ties with France, especially when the French Revolution began. Strict Constructionist
Bill of Rights One of first priorities facing the new government Antifederalists had sharply criticized the Constitution for not having one. Many states had ratified under the condition that one be included. Amendments to the Constitution could be achieved two ways: A new constitutional convention requested by 2/3 of the states (has never happened) 2/3 vote by both houses of Congress and ratification by 3/4 of states (has happened on 18 separate occasions) Federalists feared that another constitutional convention might reverse their victory James Madison drafted the amendments and submitted them to Congress. Madison's draft based largely on James Mason's bill of rights in Virginia.
Bill of Rights -- First ten amendments to the Constitution adopted in 1791. Provided safeguards for some of America's most precious principles: 1. Freedom of speech, press, assembly, & religion 2. Right to bear arms 3. Troops may not be arbitrarily quartered on the people 4. Unreasonable searches and seizures forbidden 5. The individual is guaranteed certain rights when on trial and the right to life, liberty and property 6. Right to a fair and speedy trial in criminal cases 7. Right to a trial in civil cases (law suits against other citizens) 8. Excessive fines and unusual punishments are forbidden. 9. The people retain rights not enumerated in the Constitution 10. Powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states and the people.
Judiciary Act of 1789 Organized the Supreme Court with a chief justice (John Jay) and five associates Organized federal district and circuit courts. Established the office of attorney general. Fatal provision: law stated Supreme Court could force presidential appointments of judges.
Hamilton's Economic Plan By 1789, one of America s biggest challenges was its debt! Report on Public Credit (1790) Plan to shape fiscal policies of the administration to favor wealthier groups In return, the wealthy would lend the gov't monetary & moral support Prosperity would trickle down to the masses Report on Manufactures (1791) Advocated promotion of a factory system in U.S. so the nation could exploit its national resources and strengthen capitalism. Was the basis for the tariff component in his financial plan.
Funding at Par Purpose: Bolstering national credit Hamilton Believed the government couldn't borrow money without investor confidence This idea urged Congress to pay off the entire national debt by "funding at par" and to assume all debts incurred by the states during the Revolutionary war. Debts would be paid at face value plus accumulated interest Government bonds had depreciated to $.10 or $.15 on the dollar since the new Treasury was believed incapable of paying its obligations. Speculators still had large amounts of bonds. Many wealthy investors rushed to buy as many bonds as possible in rural areas at rock-bottom prices before news of Hamilton's plan reached countryside. Many original bondholders (common people) sold unknowingly as they were often poor and desperate for immediate cash. Hamilton was bitterly criticized for not alerting original bondholders to the plan.
Assumption of State Debts Hamilton urged Congress to assume the states' debts. Hamilton's ulterior motive: further obligate states to the federal government. Hamilton believed national debt was a "blessing" that would cement the union. States with huge debt were delighted (esp. Mass.) States with less debt or no remaining debt were unhappy Hated being taxed to pay somebody else's debt. (Virginia especially angry) North-South struggle ensued over assumption Compromise achieved in 1790 through a process called "log rolling" "Log rolling" occurs when two opposing factions agree to vote for each other s bills so that their own cherished bills will pass. Federal government would assume all state debt South would get new federal district-- now District of Columbia. Pierre L Enfant -- Created map plan for the new city. Benjamin Banneker -- African American who surveyed land Washington was to be built on. Madison and Jefferson instrumental in helping set up compromise. Jefferson later lamented he was outwitted by Hamilton
Tariffs & Excise Taxes Tariffs (customs duties) became a source of revenue for paying the debt Tariff revenues depended on a healthy foreign trade. Revenue Act of 1789 -- imposed an 8% tariff on dutiable imports First tariff law passed in U.S. History at the national level Secondary goal was to help protect infant industries. Excise taxes 1791, Hamilton secured an excise tax on a few domestic items incl. whisky. Backcountry distillers most affected by the 7 cent/gallon tax. Poor roads made grain transportation practical only by horseback which severely hampered profit potential of cash crops. Whiskey flowed so freely in this region it was often used as money. Hamilton not overly concerned with the protests from the frontier most had been antifederalist in sentiment.
Whiskey Rebellion (1794) Southwestern Pennsylvania backcountry folks hard hit by Hamilton's excise tax. Whiskey Boys posed a major challenge to the new national government Torched buildings, tarred & feathered revenue officers, chased gov t supporters from the region; some talked of secession from U.S. Tax collections came to a halt. Washington summoned the militia of several states resulting in 13,000-man army. Washington accompanied troops part of the way; Hamilton all the way. When the troops reached the hills of w. Penn., the Whiskey Boys dispersed. Washington later pardoned the two convicted participants to heal the rift. Significance: Washington's government showed it could ensure domestic tranquility Proved that another Shays -type rebellion could not succeed under the new Constitution Jeffersonians condemned the action as a brutal display of force and their ranks grew.
Whiskey Rebellion
The Bank Controversy Battle for the National Bank: most important issue between Hamilton and Jefferson Hamilton proposed the creation of a National Bank that would be privately owned, but federally chartered to regulate finance. President Washington requested written opinions from both H & J! Madison & Jefferson opposed the Bank of the U.S. (BUS) because: It appeared to favor the rich and potentially could jeopardize liberty Creates an unfair competition: state banks could not complete Its creation was not mentioned in the Constitution: Madison and Jefferson supported a strict construction or interpretation of the Constitution! Hamilton defended creating a BUS under Article 1, section 8: The Necessary & Proper Clause gave Congress implied powers to interpret the Constitution This Elastic Clause allowed Hamilton to make a successful loose construction argument BUS is necessary to store collection of taxes and moneys from the regulation of trade which is stated in the Constitution! Congress chartered the Bank of the United States in 1791 for 20 years This creates North/South friction (BUS favors INDUSTRY)
Birth of the Party System Founding Fathers in Philadelphia did not envision the existence of political parties. Organized opposition seemed disloyal and against spirit of national unity. No national political party had ever existed in America before Washington's administration. Factions had existed only over special issues: e.g. Tories & Whigs, Federalists & Antifederalists. Factions were not parties. Jefferson & Madison first organized their opposition to Hamilton only in Congress Did not anticipate creating a permanent, popular party. As their antagonism at Hamilton grew, political parties began to emerge. By 1792-1793, two well-defined groups had crystallized: Hamiltonian Federalists Jeffersonian Republicans Our two-party system is owed to the clash between Hamilton & Jefferson.
The Federalists Emerged from the federalists of the pre-constitution period by 1793. Believed in gov't by the upper classes with secondary attention to the masses. Openly advocated rule by the "best people. Rich had more leisure to study problems of governing. Enjoyed all the advantages of intelligence, education, & culture. John Jay: "Those who own the country ought to govern it." Distrusted the common people. Regarded democracy as a "mobocracy" Democracy too important to be left to the people. Supported a strong central government Maintain law & order; crush democratic excesses (Shays Rebellion) Protect life & property of the wealthy. Federal government should foster business, not interfere with it. Federalists dominated by merchants, manufacturers, & shippers Most lived in urban areas of the seaboard where commerce & manufacturing flourished. Pro-British in foreign policy over other powers Foreign trade with Britain was key in Hamilton's plan. Many Federalists were mild Loyalists
Jeffersonians (Democratic-Republicans) Advocated the rule of the people; government for the people However, only by those who were literate enough to inform themselves. Believed in the wisdom of the common people; teachability of the masses Biggest appeal was to the middle class and the underprivileged yeoman farmers, laborers, artisans, and small shopkeepers. Democratic-Republicans believed the best government was one that governed least. Bulk of power should be retained by the states. Central authority was to kept at bay by a strict interpretation of Constitution lest a dictatorship develop (especially the 10th Amendment). National debt was a curse to future generations that should be paid off ASAP. Jeffersonians themselves were primarily agrarians Insisted on no special privileges for special classes, esp. manufacturers. Farming was an ennobling profession Believed in freedom of speech to expose tyranny. Basically pro-french -- It was to America's advantage to support liberal ideas of the French Revolution.
The Federalist Era
The Battle over Foreign Affairs In the 1792 election, Washington was unanimously chosen again. Foreign policy became the focus of Washington s 2 nd term: War between England & France broke out in 1793 which divided Americans over who to support. England refused to obey the Treaty of Paris (1783) & barred the U.S. from West Indian trade. France was engulfed in the French Revolution; The U.S. supported the revolution, but feared its radical & bloody nature. U.S. neutrality seemed to be the best option. Hamilton & Jefferson wanted neutrality but disagreed how: Jefferson: punish England (due to impressment) by cutting off trade & reward France. Hamilton: England needed to be appeased, not coerced. Washington signed Proclamation of Neutrality (1793) to keep America out of foreign wars
Washington s Neutrality Proclamation (1793): U.S. still obligated to France under the Franco-American alliance of 1778 U.S. had pledged to protect French West Indies from enemies Jeffersonians favored honoring the Alliance President Washington believed war should be avoided at all costs U.S. was militarily weak in 1793 and should stay out of war for a generation or so. Premature entry into world conflicts could prove disastrous. -- Hamilton & Jefferson in agreement. Neutrality Proclamation of 1793 Proclaimed U.S. neutrality toward the war between Britain and France Warned citizens to be impartial to both Britain & France American Reaction Jeffersonians enraged, especially by Washington not consulting Congress. Federalists supported it.
Citizen Genet French envoy/ profiteer undertook to entice U.S. profiteers to outfit French ships and supply the French war cause and recruited Americans Wrongly believed Neutrality Act did not truly reflect the wishes of Americans. Suggested going over "Old Washington's" head by appealing to the voters. Washington demanded his withdrawal & Genet was replaced. America & France benefited from U.S. neutrality America's neutrality meant it could still deliver foodstuffs to the West Indies. France did not officially call upon U.S. to honor its obligation. If U.S. entered war, British navy would blockade coasts and cut off needed supplies.
Jay's Treaty with England Significance: Most important immediate cause for formation of Democratic Republican party. Background: British had continued menacing Americans on U.S. soil and on the high seas British remained in their frontier posts on U.S. soil Violation of the Peace treaty of 1783 Sold firearms and alcohol to Native Americans who attacked American settlers British navy seized about 300 U.S. ships seized in the West Indies starting in 1793 Hundreds of Americans impressed into service on British vessels while hundreds of others imprisoned. Federalists unwilling to go to war 75% of US customs duties from British imports. Jeffersonians argued that U.S. should impose an embargo against George III. Washington sent Jay, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, to London in 1794 Jeffersonians feared the conservative Jay would sell out Hamilton handicapped Jay s negotiations; secretly gave Brits U.S. bargaining strategy
Provisions: America won few concessions Britain will remove their posts from U.S. soil (as in 1783) Britain will pay damages for recent seizures of American ships Britain refused to guarantee against future maritime seizures and impressments or the inciting of Native Americans to violence on the frontier. Jay was forced to ensure US repayment of pre-revolution debts owed to British merchants Jeffersonian outrage vitalized the new Democratic-Republican party. South felt betrayed that northern merchants would be paid damages Southern planters would be taxed to pay pre-revolution debt. War with Britain was averted Washington reluctantly and courageously pushed for ratification of the treaty Realized war with Britain was a worse evil than this humiliating treaty. The Senate narrowly approved the treaty in 1795
Pinckney s Treaty with Spain Normalized relations with Spain Spanish Motive: fearful of an Anglo-American alliance; sought to appease Americans Spain a declining power in Europe Spain s position declining on the American frontier Treaty provisions: (Spanish concessions) Granted free navigation of the Mississippi to the U.S. including right of deposit at port city of New Orleans Yielded large area north of Florida that had been in dispute for over a decade. 31st parallel recognized as legal border between U.S. and Spanish Florida. Defeat of Indians on the Frontier Iroquois nation forced onto reservations in New York & Pennsylvania after the Revolutionary war. Many fled to Canada - - No longer major threat to U.S. Indians in Northwest and Southwest borders, Shawnee and Miami tribes increasingly hostile toward Americans. Incited by British on far reaches of the frontier who were eager to keep U.S. in check.
Washington lost two armies in the Northwest in 1790-1791 to the Shawnee and allied tribes. General Mad Anthony Wayne finally led U.S. forces to victory in Old Northwest Battle of Fallen Timbers in August 1794 was the climactic battle. -- Indians finally forced to abandon their British allies Treaty of Greenville (1795) cleared 2/3 of Ohio and Indiana of Indian tribes. Britain abandoned its forts in the Old Northwest. Eastern Woodlands Indians now saw their lifestyle ruined by increased competition for fur trade, white settlement, and ruining of hunting grounds. Forced westward, they came into increased conflict with tribes west of Mississippi. A movement to regenerate Indian society swept through the region and was led by certain Indian prophets but eventually failed due to continued American expansion.
Pinckney Treaty of 1795
Washington's Farewell Address He had reluctantly accepted a second term when his friends & advisors begged him to stay -- Unanimously reelected Washington lost his nonpartisan standing when he became a Federalist -- Verbal abuse from Jeffersonian wing was pronounced Refused to accept a third term as President Set a precedent for the 2-term presidency Washington exhausted physically and weary of verbal abuse Farewell Address 2/3 domestic related: Warned against evils of political parties -- partisan bitterness. Warned against permanent foreign alliances (like treaty with France) Jeffersonians angered that speech seemed to declare U.S. hostility toward France. Isolationism became dominant U.S. foreign policy for next 100 years. Washington thus kept U.S. out of war