Public Interest Environmental Litigation in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh Jona Razzaque Foundation for International Environmental Law and Development Kluwer Law International The Hague / London / New York
Contents Outline of the Book Contents Acknowledgements Abbreviations List of Cases List of Tables List of Charts List of Statutes Table of Treaties and Other Instruments v vii xv xvi xx xli xlii xliii xlvii Chapter 1 Public Interest Environmental Litigation in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 1 Part A: Introduction 1 1. General Introduction 1 2. Reasons behind choosing India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 3 2.1. Geographical extent and legal system of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 3 2.2. Common Environmental Concerns of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh^ 5 2.2.1. Water pollution 5 2.2.2. Degradation of Marine and Coastal Resources 7 2.2.3. Increased use of agro chemicals 7 2.2.4. Loss of coastal habitats and deforestation 8 Vll
viii Public Interest Environmental Litigation in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 2.2.5. Land Based Pollution 9 2.2.6. Waterlogging and salinity 9 2.2.7. Air Pollution 9 2.2.8. Biodiversity 10 2.2. The Need for PIEL in the context of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 11 3. A Note on Methodology 12 4. Scope and Structure of the Book 15 Part B: Public Interest Environmental Litigation 34 1. Historical Development of Public Interest Litigation 35 2. Development of Public Interest Environmental Litigation 47 Chapter 2 Environmental Protection and the Constitution 63 1. General Introduction 64 2. The Constitution of India and Environmental Protection 68 2.1. Introduction 68 2.2. The Directive Principles of State Policy 69 3. The Constitution of Bangladesh and Environmental Protection 75 3.1. Introduction 75 3.2. Fundamental Principles of State Policy 76 4. The Constitution of Pakistan and Environmental Protection 78 4.1. Introduction 78 4.2. The Principles of Policy 81 4.3. Objectives Resolution 83 5. Fundamental Rights and the Protection of Environment 84 5.1. Introduction 84 5.2. Fundamental Right to Life 87 5.3. Right to Clean Environment in India 94 5.4. Right to Healthy Environment in Bangladesh 108 5.5. Right to Clean Environment in Pakistan 110 5.6. The Right to Equality in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 115 5.7. Right to Property in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 119
Contents ix Chapter 3 Environmental Regulation and Regulatory Mechanisms in Environmental Management in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 123 1. General Introduction 123 2. Conceptual Framework of Environmental Regulation 126 2.1. Introduction 126 2.2. Outline of Approaches 127 2.3. Framework Law 129 2.4. Institutional Structure of Environmental Management 137 2.5. Enforcement and Control 142 2.6. Incentive Mechanisms 156 2.7. Conclusion 160 3. Regulatory Mechanisms of Environmental Management 162 3.1. Introduction 162 3.2. Development of EIA Regulation and Procedures in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 165 3.2.1. Introduction 165 3.2.2. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in India 165 3.3.3. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in Bangladesh 170 3.2.4. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in Pakistan 176 3.3. Conclusion 179 Chapter 4 Application of Judicial Procedures and Remedies in PIEL in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 181 1. General Introduction 181 2. Available Procedural Rights under the Constitution and its Use in Environmental Cases 183 2.1. Introduction 183 2.2. Evolution of Writ Jurisdiction 184 2.3. Procedural Rights under the Constitution in India 186 2.4. Procedural Rights under the Constitution in Bangladesh 191 2.5. Procedural Rights under the Constitution in Pakistan 194 2.6. Conclusion 198 3. Use of Common Law and Criminal Law in Environmental Litigation in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 199 3.1 Introduction 199
x Public Interest Environmental Litigation in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 3.2. Public Nuisance in Criminal Cases in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 200 3.3. Negligence and Strict Liability 209 3.4. Conclusion 213 4. Use of Civil Procedural Rights in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh... 214 4.1. Introduction 214 4.2. Class Actions in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 215 4.3. Representative Suits in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 217 4.4. Public Nuisance in Civil Cases 224 4.5. Conclusion 226 Chapter 5 Civil and Criminal Remedies, Cost and Funding in PIEL 229 1. General Introduction 229 2. Available Civil and Criminal Remedies used in Environmental Litigation in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 230 2.1. Introduction 230 2.2. Injunction (Civil/Criminal) 231 2.3. Damages (Civil/Criminal) 234 2.4. Directions (Civil) 237 2.5. Fine and Imprisonment (Criminal) 241 2.6. Conclusion 244 3. Expenses in Environmental Litigation 244 3.1. Introduction 244 3.2. Cost Order and Advocate's Fees 246 3.3. Legal Aid in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 254 3.4. Environmental Insurance 262 3.5. Conclusion 264 Chapter 6 Interest, Representation and Standing in Public Interest Environmental Litigation 267 Part A: General 268 1. General Introduction 268 2. Standing Rules in Environmental Cases: Application in the UK and in the USA 272 2.1. Introduction 272 2.2. Development of Standing in the UK 274
Contents xi 2.3. Development of Standing Rule in the USA 279 2.4. Conclusion 282 Part B: Issue of Standing in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan 284 3. Development of the Issue of Standing in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 284 3.1. Introduction 284 3.2. Development of the Issue of Standing in India 286 3.3. Development of the Issue of Standing in Bangladesh 289 3.4. Development of the Issue of Standing in Pakistan 292 3.5. Conclusion 294 4. Factors Taken into Account by the Court 295 4.1. Introduction 295 4.2. Factors Taken into Account in India 297 4.3. Factors Taken into Account in Bangladesh 298 4.4. Factors Taken into Account in Pakistan 298 4.5. Conclusion 299 5. Question of Standing in Environmental Cases 299 5.1. Introduction 299 5.2. Standing in Environmental Cases in India 300 5.3. Standing in the Environmental Cases in Bangladesh 303 5.4. Standing in Environmental Cases in Pakistan 306 5.5. Conclusion 308 6. Refusal of Standing in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 309 6.1. Introduction 309 6.2. Refusal of Standing in India 309 6.3. Refusal of Standing in Bangladesh 313 6.4. Refusal of Standing in Pakistan 313 6.5. Conclusion 314 Chapter 7 Application of IEL in the National Legal Systems of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 317 1. General Introduction 317 2. Sustainable Development and its Application in the National Court 319 2.1. Introduction 319 2.2. International Application of the Concept 320
xii Public Interest Environmental Litigation in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 2.3. National Application of the Concept in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 324 2.4. Conclusion 333 3. Intergenerational Equity and its Application in the National Court 333 3.1 Introduction 333 3.2. International Application of the principle 334 3.3. National Application of the Principle in the Courts of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 341 3.4. Conclusion 343 4. The Precautionary Principle and its Application in the National Court 343 4.1. Introduction 343 4.2. International Application of the Principle 344 4.3. National Application of the Principle in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 351 4.4. Conclusion 360 5. Polluter Pays Principle and its Application in National Court 361 5.1. Introduction 361 5.2. International Application of the Principle 361 5.3. National Application of the Principle 365 5.4. Conclusion 369 Chapter 8 Alternative Environmental Forum, Access to Environmental Information and Public Participation in Environmental Decision Making in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 371 1. General Introduction 371 Part A 373 2. Separate Forum of Environmental Dispute Settlement 373 2.1. Introduction 373 2.2. Alternative Forums in India 379 2.3. Separate Forums in Pakistan 392 2.4. Separate Forums in Bangladesh 395 2.5. Conclusion 400 PartB 402 3. Introduction 402
Contents xiii 4. Access to Environmental Information in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 406 5. Public participation in the environmental decision making in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh 409 5.1. Public Participation in the Decision Making in India 410 5.2. Public Participation in the Decision Making in Bangladesh 412 5.3. Public Participation in the Decision Making in Pakistan 416 5.4. Conclusion 419 Chapter 9 Concluding Observations 421 1. General Introduction 421 2. Findings from Chapters 2, 3 and 4 422 3. Findings from Chapter 5, 6 and 7 430 4. Findings from Chapter 8 443 5. Concluding Thoughts 447 Bibliography 449 Index 481