CHAPTER 1. Reconstruction and the New South ( )

Transcription

1 CHAPTER 1 Reconstruction and the New South ( ) 1

2 Timeline President Lincoln established his Reconstruction plan, the Ten-Percent Plan, also known as Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction Congress passed the Wade-Davis Bill 1864 Congress ratified the 13th Amendment, which abolished slavery President Abraham Lincoln assassinated by John Wilkes Booth; Andrew Johnson became President Black Codes passed in the South Freedman s Bureau created Ku Klux Klan formed in the South Congress passed the Civil Rights Act, an attempt to protect African Americans rights Congress passed the First Reconstruction Act, which divided the South into five military districts and established strict guidelines for the readmission of Southern states to the Union Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, which stated that the president needed Senate approval to remove appointed officials President Andrew Johnson impeached but not removed from office Congress ratified the 14th Amendment, which granted citizenship to everyone born in the United States and subject to its jurisdiction and protects civil and political rights Ulysses S. Grant elected president Congress passed the 15th Amendment, which prohibited every U.S. state government from denying a male citizen the right to vote based on his race, color, or previous condition of servitude Congress passed the Ku Klux Klan Act 1871 President Grant reelected Congress passed the Reconstruction Act of 1875, which stated that African Americans must have equal rights in public places and that they could not be barred from serving on juries Rutherford B. Hayes elected president Jim Crow laws passed in the South 1890s 2

3 Activities List What You Should Do Read the chapter on Reconstruction and the New South Review the learning activities Complete the Chapter 1 quiz Participate in the Chapter 1 discussion question Where? Book and Online Online Online Online Introduction Reconstruction refers to the period following the Civil War. It involved readmitting the former Confederate states to the Union, as well as establishing the legal, political, and social status of former slaves. American political leaders faced many challenges during Reconstruction, and Reconstruction plans changed several times. Members of Congress were often at odds with Presidents Lincoln and Johnson regarding what should be done. Those disagreements prolonged Reconstruction, increased Southern anger, and led to President Johnson s impeachment. Four million slaves were freed following the Civil War. The former slaves had depended on their owners for all of their needs. They needed help as they built new lives as freedmen. Three amendments were added to the Constitution, and civil rights legislation was enacted by Congress. Even with those legal protections, African Americans faced discrimination, restrictions on their rights, and intimidation often in the form of physical violence from the newly formed Ku Klux Klan. Historians have a mixed view of Reconstruction. Critics argue that although former Confederate states were readmitted to the Union, and African Americans had rights and protections on paper, Reconstruction was ultimately a failure because Southern attitudes did not change and the U.S. government did not enforce civil rights legislation. Since Reconstruction did not help the South physically rebuild from Civil War damage, the South s economy took a long time to recover as well. Despite the economic development that accompanied industrialization after Reconstruction, most former slaves, in addition to poor Whites, remained in a subordinate and impoverished state and did not share in the benefits of the New South, a term used to describe the South s attempts to modernize after Reconstruction. Other historians take a more long-term approach when evaluating Reconstruction, pointing out that while it did not succeed immediately, it did provide the foundation for civil rights successes in the 1950s and 1960s. Additionally, African Americans were inspired during Reconstruction to create educational and religious institutions that unified them and gave them strength in the face of oppression. 3

4 Learning Objectives After completing this chapter, you should be able to Define key terms and concepts and explain their relevance to Reconstruction and the New South Describe the impact of important individuals and groups on Reconstruction and the New South Evaluate the significance and relevance of the key events that took place during Reconstruction Analyze the successes and failures of Reconstruction Key Terms Black Codes: the laws passed by the former Confederate states that denied many rights to African Americans; also known as Jim Crow Laws Freedmen s Bureau: a government organization established in March 1865 to help newly freed slaves rebuild their lives Ku Klux Klan: a group formed in Tennessee in 1865, whose members opposed civil rights for African Americans New South: a term used to describe the South s attempts to modernize after Reconstruction Pocket veto: an act of legislation that occurs when the president does not sign a bill into law before the deadline for doing so arrives Radical Republicans: the liberal Republican congressmen during the Reconstruction Period Reconstruction: the period following the Civil War Redeemers: a group of Southern Democrats who worked to oppose Reconstruction and Republican political power in the South Spoils system: the act of rewarding friends and supporters with government position, even if they lack qualifications for those positions Ten-Percent Plan: President Lincoln s plan for Reconstruction implemented in 1863, also known as Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction 4

5 Reconstruction Plans In December 1863, President Abraham Lincoln announced his plan for Reconstruction. The Ten- Percent Plan was Lincoln s plan for Reconstruction, which was implemented in 1863; his plan was also known as the Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction. Lincoln was a moderate Republican and wanted the country to be reunited as quickly and painlessly as possible. Under Lincoln s plan, 10% of each former Confederate state s eligible voters in the 1860 election would be required to swear an oath of loyalty to the United States. The oath stated that the individual would henceforth faithfully support, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States, and the Union of States, as well as abide by and faithfully support all laws and proclamations which have been made during the existing rebellion, with reference to the emancipation of slaves (Zuczek, 2006a, p. 749). Each state would also have to abolish slavery. Once those requirements were met, the state could form a new government and rejoin the Union. Lincoln felt that his plan would be the most effective way to reunite the Union without alienating the South. By 1864, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Arkansas were readmitted to the Union under the Ten-Percent Plan. Wade-Davis Bill The Radical Republicans, a group of liberal Republican congressmen during the Reconstruction Period, opposed the Ten-Percent Plan. They thought it was too easy on the South. They were also angry because Lincoln had implemented the Ten-Percent Plan on his own, instead of going through Congress. They thought that Congress, not the president, should have the authority to readmit the southern states to the Union. The Radical Republicans wanted retribution from the South because of the Civil War, and wanted to erect as many obstacles as possible for southern states readmission to the Union. They also wanted to break the political power of the wealthy planters who had dominated Southern politics before the Civil War. Two Radical Republicans, Senator Benjamin Wade of Ohio and Representative Henry Winter Davis of Maryland, proposed a stricter Reconstruction plan called the Wade-Davis Bill. The Wade-Davis Bill required a majority of a state s eligible voters in the 1860 election to swear an oath of loyalty to the Union. Additionally, it barred anyone who had voluntarily supported the Confederacy from participating in politics on either the state or national level. The bill was passed by both houses of Congress in July Lincoln pocket vetoed the Wade-Davis Bill. A pocket veto is an act of legislation that occurs when the president does not sign a bill into law before the deadline for doing so arrives. In the case of the Wade-Davis Bill, Congress adjourned while Lincoln held the bill, so it was automatically pocket vetoed. Lincoln issued a proclamation stating his reasons for vetoing the bill. He thought that the Wade-Davis Bill was too harsh on the South. He also did not want to be inflexibly committed to any single plan of restoration (Zuczek, 2006b, p. 45). One of Lincoln s major reasons for opposing the bill was because it would require former Confederate states that had already been readmitted to the Union under his Ten-Percent Plan to meet the new requirements. According to Lincoln, it would be wrong to revoke the readmission of those states. He thought that doing so would only result in repelling and discouraging the loyal citizens of the states who had worked so hard to establish new governments (Zuczek, 2006b, p. 45). 5

6 Lincoln s Assassination On April 14, 1865, five days after Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered and the Civil War ended, Lincoln was shot in the head while attending a play with his wife. He died the following day. His assassin, John Wilkes Booth, supported the Confederacy and was angry that it had lost the Civil War. Lincoln s assassination had a profound effect on both the North and the South. Northerners were outraged that the president s assassin was pro-confederacy, and their existing anger toward the South intensified. In many cities, people who supported Booth were physically attacked by Americans mourning the death of the president (Sandburg, 1939, p. 350). Lincoln s death alarmed the South. Although they had viewed him as a radical before the Civil War, and his election had contributed greatly to their decision to secede from the Union, Most Southerners thought that his Ten-Percent Plan was reasonable. At that point, Southerners actually considered Lincoln an ally in Reconstruction, and they were worried that his death would allow the government to implement a harsher Reconstruction plan. According to Southerner Elizabeth Blair, Those of southern born sympathies know now they have lost a friend willing and more powerful to protect and serve them than they can now ever hope to find again (Goodwin, 2005, p. 744). As it turned out, Lincoln s successor, Vice President Andrew Johnson, held an even more lenient view of Reconstruction President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, Johnson s Plan than Lincoln, although he would quickly be overpowered by the Radical Republicans and eventually be impeached. Following Lincoln s assassination, Vice President Andrew Johnson, a Democrat, became president. In 1864, Johnson had been nominated to serve as Lincoln s running mate on the National Union Party ticket. The National Union Party had been established in 1864 as an attempt to unite Republicans and pro-union Democrats. As the most prominent pro-union Democratic politician, Johnson seemed to be the logical choice for the vice-presidential nomination. Lincoln had easily won reelection, defeating former Union Army General George McClellan, the Democratic candidate. Johnson was vice president for a little over a month when Lincoln was assassinated. Johnson, who was born in North Carolina, grew up in poverty. Although he became prosperous after moving to Tennessee and entering politics, he remained conscious of his background and supported the interests of poor and middle-class Southerners; he never considered himself part of the elite planter class. Johnson owned slaves, although he voluntarily freed them in He also believed that the Constitution protected slave ownership. However, as the pre-civil War debate over slavery intensified, Johnson indicated that he considered preserving the Union more important than maintaining his own right to possess slaves. His views on slavery also changed over time. According to Glenna R. Schroeder-Lein and Richard Zuczek (2001), Johnson came to see slavery as a regional 6

7 blight that made the rich richer, stunted progress and self-motivation, and ultimately led to war (p. 295). As a United States Senator in 1860, Johnson gave speeches opposing secession, denouncing it as treason (Linder, 1999, para. 2). He remained loyal to the Union and continued his work in the Senate, even after Tennessee seceded from the Union; he was the only Southern congressman to support the Union. Initially, the Radical Republicans were optimistic about Johnson s unexpected ascension to the presidency and thought that he would be a stronger ally in the White House than Lincoln had been. Johnson was outspoken regarding his hatred for the Southern elite planter class, blaming them for the Civil War. Shortly after he became president, Johnson spoke about breaking the power of the planters, stating, Treason must be made odious... traitors must be punished and impoverished... their social power must be destroyed (Milton, 1930, p. 183). He also made statements claiming that he intended to confiscate the property of the planters. He wanted to distribute the property to poor, landless Southerners who made up the bulk of the Confederate military and had been forced to fight to maintain the slave system from which they did not benefit. Based on Johnson s background and numerous President Johnson had mixed views on the role of slavery in America. statements he had made in the past, the Radical Republicans thought that he would support their desire to replace the Ten-Percent Plan with a harsher Reconstruction plan. Even Senator Benjamin Wade, one of the authors of the Wade-Davis Bill, supported him, saying, Johnson, we have faith in you. By the gods, there will be no more trouble in running the government (Linder, 1999, para. 4). However, the opposite turned out to be true. In May 1865, Johnson announced his Reconstruction plan, which would replace the Ten- Percent Plan. The plan was not what the Radical Republicans had expected from Johnson. Under Johnson s plan, Southerners who owned less than $20,000 worth of property would receive a pardon and could participate in politics. Wealthy Southerners and former Confederate leaders could apply for presidential pardons, which Johnson usually granted. Once a state had repealed secession and abolished slavery, it could form a new government and be readmitted to the Union. By December 1865, all of the former Confederate states had applied for readmission to the Union. But some states refused to comply with some of the requirements. None of the new state constitutions granted African Americans the right to vote, and all of the new state governments enacted discriminatory policies against African Americans. Johnson thought, like Lincoln, that the president should be responsible for Reconstruction and did not see the need to work with Congress in devising Reconstruction policies. Without Congress s consent, Johnson implemented his plan. In December 1865, Johnson announced that all of the former Confederate states had been readmitted to the Union. Congress disagreed. They refused to allow the newly elected Southern senators and representatives to assume their offices. Although the Radical Republicans opposed the newly elected Southern congressmen on principle, that was not their only motivation. According to Douglas O. Linder (1999), Republicans also had more practical reasons to worry about Johnson s lenient reconstruction policy: the congressmen elected by white Southerners were certain to be 7

8 overwhelmingly Democrats, reducing if not eliminating the Republican majorities in both houses (para. 6). Several senators and representatives also joined together and said that only Congress had the authority to readmit states to the Union. However, Johnson s plan remained in effect until the congressional election of The Republicans already controlled both houses of Congress, but in 1866 their majority increased to the point where they had the two-thirds vote of both houses, which was needed to override a presidential veto. Their majority enabled the Republicans to take control of Reconstruction by rendering Johnson s vetoes irrelevant. Civil Rights Amendments Three civil rights amendments were added to the Constitution during Reconstruction. The 13th Amendment, ratified in December 1865, abolished slavery. In June 1868, the 14th Amendment was ratified. It granted citizenship, due process, and equal protection under the law to anyone born in the United States, including former slaves. The 14th Amendment also stated that citizens could not be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, and forbade states from denying citizens the equal protection of the laws (U.S. Const. amend. XIV, Section 1). Finally, the 15th Amendment, ratified in February 1870, granted African American men the right to vote, stating that the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude (U.S. Const. amend. XV). Even though the amendment refered to citizens, women were not included. The adoption of the 15th Amendment signaled the split between the civil rights movement and the women s rights movement. Before the Civil War, many women joined the abolitionist cause, believing that the legal position of slaves and women, especially married women, were so similar that advances for one group would lead to advances for the other. Women expected that if voting rights were extended to citizens, they would gain the right to vote. Many women s rights activists were angered that the 15th Amendment applied only to men, and many of them actually spoke out against the ratification of the 15th Amendment for that reason. Government Actions at a Glance THE 15th AMENDMENT The 15th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibited governments from denying suffrage to any citizen on the account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. In this context, the definition of race was all-inclusive, and previous condition of servitude referred to a person s prior status as a slave, as slaves had been unable to vote. After the amendment was passed, more African American men were active in politics, both with voting and running for offices. During an era when African Americans and other minorities strove for equality, the 15th Amendment was an important piece of legislation on the path to civil rights for all minorities. 8

9 Legislation Congress also passed several laws to assist former slaves and protect their newly gained rights. The Freedmen s Bureau was a government organization established in March 1865 to help newly freed slaves rebuild their lives. In addition to providing freedmen with basic necessities, such as food, clothing, education, and medical care, Freedmen s Bureau agents went to the South, where they helped freed slaves find homes and jobs. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was the predecessor to the 14th Amendment, and it stated that anyone born in the United States was a citizen. The act also detailed citizens rights and made it illegal to deny anyone the rights protected by the act. The president had the authority to use the military as shall be necessary to prevent the violation and enforce the due execution of this act (Civil Rights Act of 1866). African Americans and Politics By March 1867, just one year after the Civil Rights Act of 1866, over 700,000 African American men had registered to vote. African Americans made up the majority of voters in Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina. African Americans could run for office and help shape public policy. Many African Americans were elected to office on the local, state, and national levels. However, the success was short-lived. Opposition to Civil Rights Southern states soon passed laws preventing many African Americans from voting and holding elected office. In November 1865, the former Confederate states individually adopted Black Codes, laws passed by the former Confederate states that denied many rights to African Americans; they were also known as Jim Crow Laws. The laws varied from state to state. Some of the restrictions included forbidding African Americans the right to bear arms, rent or own property, and marry Whites. In response to the Black Codes, Congress gave the Freedmen s Bureau the power to prosecute people who violated the civil rights of freedmen. One of the most well-known and vocal opponents was the Ku Klux Klan, a group formed in Tennessee in 1865, whose members opposed civil rights for African Americans. Its members, who were primarily Confederate Civil War veterans, intimidated and sometimes physically attacked African Americans and their white supporters. Many Southerners supported the Klan. Robert Gooding, who lived in South Carolina during Reconstruction, recalled his impression of the Klan: The Ku Klux Klan was a necessary organization and did much to discharge weak white men and ignorant Negroes from lowliness. When the Ku Klux Klan wished to get rid of an undesirable white man or Negro, they would put an empty coffin at the undesirable person s front door. It usually caused the warned one to disappear. Although not a Ku Klux, one night I witnessed a parade of white-sheeted riders and recognized my own horse in the parade. In the morning my horse was in his stable, as usual. I asked no questions about the occurrence until years afterward. (Dixon, 1938) 9