A Hostile peace The Treaty of Versailles 1923 Hyperinflation in Germany 1923 The French and Belgian invasion of the Ruhr

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2 NB: This revision booklet represents the bare minimum for HI4. It only covers the basic themes and at A2 level you are expected to have a deep knowledge which can only be required through reading around the topic. Introduction The 30 year war debate This whole module is dominated by the 30 year war debate. We need to look at each key event and assess whether it substantially contributed to hostility or peace, conflict or reconciliation. The debate is whether the inter war period was merely an armistice which slowly and inevitably led to a Second World War or whether genuine attempts at reconciliation were smashed by economic crisis and evil dictators. In other words, was there continuous war between 1914 and 1945? KEY EVENTS A Hostile peace 1919 The Treaty of Versailles 1923 Hyperinflation in Germany 1923 The French and Belgian invasion of the Ruhr A search for collective security 1924 The Dawes Plan 1925 The Locarno Agreement 1926 Germany joins the League of Nations 1928 The Kellogg Briand Pact 1929 The Young Plan World Recession 1929 The Wall Street Crash The Rise of Extremism 1931 The Japanese invasion of Manchuria 1933 Japan leaves the League of Nations 1934 Hitler becomes Fuhrer of Germany 1935 Italy invades Abyssinia 1936 The Spanish Civil War and the Rhineland is re-militarized by Hitler 1937 Japan attack China 1938 German Anschluss (union) with Austria Failed Appeasement 1938 German invasion of the Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia) and the Munich conference 1939 The Polish Guarantee 1939 The outbreak of War 1939 Germany invade Poland Germany invade USSR Pearl Harbour and the outbreak of war in the Pacific 1945 Yalta and Potsdam 2

3 France The French were economically, socially and geographically devastated by the war. They faced 7 billion dollars worth of debt and a fear that a naturally stronger Germany would rise up and attack again in the future. For most of the population therefore, Versailles did not go far enough. Clemenceau had compromised hoping for an Anglo-American military guarantee that never came. French foreign policy in the early 1920s consequently looked to further enforce the treaty and cripple Germany whilst looking for Anglo-American support. The failure of the Ruhr crisis (1923), its expense and Anglo-American-German unity against French aggression greatly diminished France s ability to exert serious political influence. USA Despite Wilson being the architect behind many of the ideas at Versailles, the US senate failed to ratify the Treaty or the League. US isolationism left international policing to an unstable and unable Anglo- French relationship. It also nullified the credibility of the settlement and left the league without the most powerful country in the world to back it up. The Consequences of the Versailles Peace settlement for International relations. Britain The British were also devastated by the war which seriously threatened their position as an imperial power. They saw the French line as far too harsh and contradictory as a weak Germany would not be able to pay reparations or help build the European economy. British aims were simple. They wanted stability in Europe so they could stay out of any WW1 like alliances and concentrate on their Empire. The stark differences between British and French policy was the foundation upon which the climate for European diplomacy was built. Italy Despite being on the winning side the Italians gained very little from the peace settlement. They fully expected to gain some German African territory and so Versailles undoubtedly led to the rise of Mussolini and his imperialist policies. Japan The Japanese were able to make considerable gains at Versailles where they increased their influence in China and the Pacific. Anglo-American determination to stop the Eastern expansion of communism would lead to them vastly underestimating Japanese potential. Germany Versailles left the Germans resentful and unproductive. The reparation totals were unreasonable especially considering most of Germans industrial regions had been placed under foreign control. There was never any real German acceptance of the Treaty and the whole interwar period saw German foreign policy being focused on the reversal of the treaty of Versailles, instead of the rebuilding of international friendships. Russia (Soviet Union) Russia was not invited to Versailles nor offered membership of the league. Western distrust of the Bolsheviks and their open policy of COM intern led to cold relations between Russia and the West and without a strong ally in the East it was going to be very difficult for the allies to impose the terms of Versailles Eastern Europe Versailles created incredible instability in Eastern Europe. The alternative to making an alliance with Russia was to create new, large countries responsible for curbing Russian, Germanic and even Ottoman expansion. The problem was that these countries (Poland and Czechoslovakia) were far too new and therefore socially, militarily and economically weak to act as effective buffers (ironically by the time they were ready the allies sold them out). They simply became the focus of German and Russian resentment and future territorial interest. Moreover other peace treaties created more resentment in countries like Austria, Hungary and Turkey. This led to a rebellion in Turkey which showed the effectiveness of violence against Versailles.

4 The Locarno Era : Genuine Reconciliation? FOR The Dawes plan brought Europe out of the crisis created by the Ruhr invasion and initiated the start of German recovery and the needed return of America to international affairs The Locarno agreements brought a final settlement to Western Europe borders and settled Franco-German tension. Britain also became less isolated and seemed to be teaming up with Italy as a police force in Western Europe. Britain, France and Germany all had excellent foreign ministers in the late 1920s. Chamberlain (Austen), Briand and Stresemann became close friends and shared similar visions for the future of Europe Germany joined the League 1927 Allied disarmament Commission and 10,000 troops removed from Germany 1929 Young Plan reduced reparations and talks about greater political and economic unity in Europe were winning support Throughout the 1920s the French made a number of pacts with the new vulnerable Eastern European countries to protect them against either German or Russian expansion. The League s constitution did seem proactive in its aim to protect any victim of aggression The League s social and economic work bolstered its reputation, particularly in the mandates. The League built its respect and became a successful mediator over a number of issues The naval conferences limited ship building and the Kellog- Briand pact seemed to be a pact for World peace. AGAINST The Dawes plan was centered on Anglo-American aims and both France and Germany were unhappy with it. The French wanted a military guarantee and the Germans wanted a reduction in the overall reparations total but the terms were forced upon them. There were many different perceptions of Locarno. The British saw a return to a balance of power without committing themselves, the French saw Britain committing itself to defending France and the Germans saw the beginnings of the revision of Versailles. The skill of the foreign ministers meant they were all able to support selfish interests but cleverly appear to be compromising. The French and the Germans were continuously skeptical and suspicious of the developments between 1926 and 1929 and had opposing aims. Britain and America were only interested in securing the balance of power in Europe (against Communism) whilst making as much money as possible by exploiting the German economy. As soon as the balance was achieved the British and the Americans could return to isolation. French hostility to German entry to the league led to the peace pact between Germany and Russia which fuelled Western suspicions of the spread of Communism. In the 1920s neither Germany nor Russia had the resources to attack Eastern Europe and so there was a temporary peace. However neither were willing to accept the borders laid down at Versailles as both had expansionist aims for the future. The League was only given authority if the powers were disinterested in the issue The League s constitution made it indecisive with too many loopholes 4

5 GERMANY American loans dried up and repayments were demanded. European investors also lost confidence and cashed in their assets. The German economy was devastated and unemployment rose to 6 million. When you look at a graph of Nazi electoral support it is difficult not to argue that the depression wasn t the most important factor in the rise of Hitler FRANCE French political and military instability was heightened by the depression. It resulted in them being unwilling to act without British support and being overly reliant on a defensive military strategy. BRITAIN Britain focused even more on its economic problems and further delayed the process of disarmament. Britain sought to protect its empire which led to appeasement towards Japan, Italy and Germany. British focus on selfish issues isolated potential allies like France and Russia and did nothing to convince the US to come out of their own isolation. USA America reacted with complete isolation. Roosevelt s New Deal focused on internal problems and so the increasing American involvement of the late 1920s was over. The end of US money and trade and devastating effects all over the world ITALY Worldwide depression gave Mussolini a chance to exploit British and French preoccupation with internal problems and so he began his plans for the conquest of Abyssinia. Moreover it can be argued that his imperial policy was an attempt to distract Italians from their own internal problems. JAPAN Economic crisis and the lack of American imports led to a serious shortage of raw materials in Japan. This in turn led to the idea of gaining control of the rich Chinese territory of Manchuria. The consequent Manchurian crisis in 1931 showed potential aggressors that the League was too weak and its allies too self concerned to stand up to aggression. The Manchurian crisis can be seen as the symbol of this period of depression and the start of the age of extremism. 5

6 Italian Foreign Policy DATE EVENT/FOREIGN POLICY REASONS CONSEQUENCES Diplomatic Pro- Versailles Abyssinia Mussolini worked within the International system set up at Versailles. He pushed Italian interests but without upsetting France or Britain. From 1933 to 1935 Mussolini pioneered a front against German rearmament and expansionism culminating in the Stresa Front agreement in In 1935 Mussolini invaded Abyssinia and had completed the conquest by April The invasion is seen as one of the most important turning points in European relations During the 1920s Mussolini had far too many domestic problems to follow an adventurous foreign policy. Italy was too unstable and weak and Mussolini assumed Britain and France would unite against any bold Italian action. Besides which, there was no other country in Europe that Italy could work with against the British and French in the 1920s. Mussolini knew that the Anchluss (union between Germany and Austria) would create a huge powerful country on Italy s border and he worked hard to avoid it. Mussolini felt that his allegiance to the Democracies meant they would support his African ambitions and as he heard no direct opposition to this at the Stresa Front Agreements he assumed he could begin his plans. Mussolini hoped that an Empire in Africa would lead to Italy becoming one of the great powers. He had a number of objectives: Military prestige would enhance his position as Duce. Italy would be respected and feared by other nations. Italians unable to prosper in Italy could become colonists. African people would swell the size of the Italian army. The economy benefiting from new markets and resources Abyssinia was one of only two African states that had not been conquered by Europeans. Furthermore, it lay next to the Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland. Abyssinia had embarrassed the Italians during their last conquest attempt in It was time for revenge. Mussolini s apparent moderation won him support from Britain and France, flattered him with an image as an international statesman and offered the possibility of concessions from the allies. Mussolini now felt secure that he was fully backed by Britain and France to gain his empire and to stop German expansionism. The Italian conquest was achieved through brutal methods which turned public opinion in the democracies against it. The British and French leaders did not want to lose Italy as an ally and so sought a secret appeasement. However the publics found out and pressure led to them placing weak sanctions on Mussolini using the league. The sanctions did nothing except infuriate Mussolini who thought he had loyalty from the West. By the end of the Abyssinian crisis Mussolini had become alienated from the British and French, whilst at the same time deciding that they lacked the real strength of character to stand up to him. He therefore saw friendship with 6

7 Germany as the best way to force concessions from Britain and France Spanish Civil War The Axis War Mussolini sent 50,000 troops to assist General Franco s defeat of the elected Republican (communist) government 1936: Rome Berlin Axis 1937: Anti-Comintern Pact 1938: Mussolini supports Hitler at Munich 1939: Italy invades Albania and makes plans on French territory in Nice Corsica and Tunis. 1939: Pact of Steel 1939: At the start of war Mussolini backs out of the Pact of Steel and remains neutral In June 1940 Mussolini decided to enter the war and launched an invasion of France. For Mussolini, a Spanish Nationalist victory offered a number of possibilities: It would extend Italian influence to Spain. Gain credit for helping to defeat communism in Spain. He hoped to weaken British naval power in the Med France would be flanked by hostile states. Italy could test the efficiency of its armed forces in Spain Mussolini signed the Rome Berlin Axis on the promise that Hitler would support his ambitions in the Mediterranean and the Anti-Comintern Pact allied with his personal hatred of Communism. The Pact of Steel was caused by the allies guarantee to Greece after the invasion of Albania and Mussolini s further realisation that only Hitler would support his territorial ambitions. After the Pact of Steel Mussolini lived in constant regret which explains his betrayal at the outset of war Mussolini was amazed by the success of Hitler s early campaigns and so decided to join the winning side. The Italian German friendship was growing as was Mussolini s confidence in himself and in the weakness of the Western allies From 1936 onwards Mussolini isolated himself from the allies and left himself no option but to follow Hitler towards war. He increasingly had to accept a back seat to Hitler who didn t bother to tell Mussolini about the Anschluss or the invasion of Czechoslovakia. Mussolini and Italy were not ready for war and misjudged Hitler s intentions Italy was totally unprepared and the whole war was a complete disaster until they capitulated in

8 Hitler s major aims in foreign policy German Foreign Policy ) Reversal of Versailles 2) Incorporating all ethnic Germans inside 3) To obtain lebensraum in the East Rearmament 1935 Anglo-German Naval agreement 1936 Rhineland remilitarised 1936 Rome-Berlin Axis 1938 Anchluss with Austria 1933 Germany leaves league and disarmament conference 1935 Hitler does not condemn the Abyssinian invasion 1936 Hitler sends troops to the Spanish Civil War 1936 Anti-Comintern Pact BRITAIN FRANCE REACTION/CONSEQUENCES As early as 1934 Chamberlain described Germany as the greatest threat to European peace. Britain had been hit hard by the depression and by 1935 it faced German aggression in Europe, Japanese aggression in the Far East and Italian aggression in the Mediterranean. It simply did not have the resources to cope with these problems. The aim was therefore to blunt Hitler s aggression and get Germany back into the League of Nations where it could be tied down. The British were reluctant to join any Anti-German pact as it would reflect the dangerous pre-ww1 alliances so instead they looked to negotiate a pact with Germany which would give territorial guarantees in the East and South and allow Germany to re-enter the League. As an island race they felt secure after the Anglo- German Naval pact but it was a selfish act that isolated the French and gave British consent for the illegitimacy of Versailles. Hitler s moves into the Rhineland and Austria cause concern but the British public and government were desperate to avoid a war and so supported Germany s legitimate grievances against Versailles. In conclusion, Britain s indifference and often support for Hitler gave him confidence and meant opportunities to create an anti- Nazi front were lost. The French had ceased to have any real control in Europe since the failure of the Ruhr invasion. They no longer had the resources or influence (Eastern Europe) to threaten Germany and so they continued to seek military security and tried to negotiate with Hitler. The Nazi coup in Austria was fortunate for the French as it convinced the Italians to sign the Rome Agreements in An Italian alliance seemed like the best buffer against German expansionism in the West but the French also wanted security in the East and so looked for a pact with Russia which was signed in May The French now looked for a deal with Germany but their pro-versailles approach was always going to fall on deaf ears. The Depression hit France heavily between 1932 and 1935 and this led to 11 coalition governments in this period. With threats from the extreme right and left, these administrations could not come up with any decisive foreign policy and so the French fell back on an inactive, defensive mentality. The remilitarisation of the Rhineland in 1936 went against everything the French had been campaigning for since Versailles and the small German force used would have easily been repelled. However the French government was too weak and unwilling to act without Britain s help. The Rhineland invasion was the last chance the French 8

9 ITALY SOVIET UNION USA JAPAN would have to outmuscle the Germans. It also meant that it would be impossible for the British and French to get their troops to Eastern Europe. A fact that played heavily in Hitler s favour. French reaction to the events of 1936 onwards was therefore to strengthen the Maginot line. The French were acting on the premise of World War One that defense would always win over attack, they did not give enough consideration to the offensive potential of new weapons like aircraft and tanks. In conclusion France s disunity, weakness and inability to gain a military alliance with teeth showed Hitler that the French could do nothing but sit and wait for him. At first Mussolini was a Versailles revisionist and supported a pact between the Western powers (Four Power Pact suggested in June 1933). However the Nazi threat in Austria turned Mussolini and he now sought to uphold the treaty against Germany. The Rome protocols (1934) with Austria and Hungary and the Rome Agreement (1935) with France had this very goal in mind. Mussolini then invited Britain and France to the Stresa conference in April 1935 to discuss opposition to German rearmament and so by 1935 Mussolini s stand point seemed clear. However the Abyssinian crisis can be seen as a huge turning point in European relations. Public opinion forced the British and the French to oppose the invasion and Mussolini was outraged. By the end of the Abyssinian crisis Mussolini had become alienated from the British and French, whilst at the same time deciding that they lacked the real strength of character to stand up to him. He therefore saw friendship with Germany as the best way to force concessions from Britain and France. In 1936 Italian and German troops fought for the nationalists in Spain and this further unity led to the Rome-Berlin Axis. Mussolini was never really certain of his union with Hitler which shows with his desertion at the start of the war. Nevertheless, the Abyssinian crisis was a huge turning point as it united the two dictators and ended any chances of a Western alliance against Germany. Once again, Hitler s confidence grew. Stalin hoped that Hitler would be a dramatic failure paving the way for Communism. If not, he probably distrusted the West more than the Nazis and Collectivisation meant he was far too busy with internal issues. He therefore hoped that the traditions of Rapollo and the common hatred of Poland would ensure the continuation of Nazi- Soviet cooperation. Stalin made security pacts with France and joined the League in 1934 but still looked to keep diplomatic channels with Germany open. Secret talks concerning a Soviet-Nazi pact continued right up until 1936 when the French Parliament finally ratified the Franco-Russian pact but Stalin s willingness to do a deal with Hitler over Eastern Europe is evident in the Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939) despite Hitler s public hatred of communism. Stalin signed the pact as he expected a Japanese invasion from the East and would be happy to see Western Europe torn apart so that Communism could come in and pick up the pieces. Moreover, like so many other countries, the Soviet Union was too unprepared, with too many internal problems to contemplate standing up to Hitler in the 1930s. The USA were determined to stay isolated despite growing concerns from the Jewish community. The Neutrality Act of 1935 gave the President the power to ban arms sales to any country and this only strengthened the culture of non-involvement. Even after Pearl Harbour the Americans looked to stay out of the war in Europe but this option was taken away when Hitler decided to declare war first. The Japanese and the Nazis saw a way in which they could be mutually beneficial to one another. Both would act as a distraction away from their own territorial ambitions. Their common need led to the Anti-Comintern pact in

10 Appeasement and the Road to War The Countdown to War July 1937 Japan declares war on China March 1938 German occupation of Austria 29 th September 1938 At the Munich Conference Hitler agrees to no more territorial demands if Germany is given the Sudetenland 15 th March 1939 Germany invades Czech areas of Bohemia and Moravia. 23 rd August 1939 The Nazi-Soviet Pact 1 st September Germany invades Poland 3 rd Sept Britain and France declare war on Germany. Why did Chamberlain appease Hitler? 1) British Military Weakness After World War One Lloyd George committed Britain to a disarmament programme. The government initiated the 10 year plan that predicted a war would not be waged on Britain for at least 10 years. Expenditure was severely cut in the army, navy and air force. In 1938 Britain was relatively defenceless. It had a small trained army, very few fighter planes and even less anti-aircraft technology like radar. Britain s navy was still strong but it was thought to be redundant with the new threat from the air. Chamberlain was very weary of the bomber in modern war, in speeches he often talked about the new threat to civilians from enemy bombers. Chamberlain did not want to be remembered as the Prime Minister who led Britain into a war that caused millions of civilian deaths. Most of the P.M s military chiefs were warning him of the threat of the Luftwaffe and it was this threat that led him to appease Hitler. Nothing could be gained from sentencing the population of major cities to death. 2) Chamberlain s personality and the British character Chamberlain had a personal conviction for appeasement. His father was a politician and had strived for a union with Germany, Chamberlain hoped to fulfill his father s goals. Chamberlain came from a background in business. He believed the only outcome of war was the disintegration of trade relations between countries. War was barbaric and any international situation could be resolved if two statesmen sat down face to face and reached a compromise. It was this part of Chamberlain s personality that led him to support appeasement so vehemently. Chamberlain was stereotypically British. The public widely supported appeasement after the horrors of World War One but they also supported Chamberlain s British outlook. His need to be the bigger man and find a peaceful resolution was respected throughout the country. Appeasement between the wars can therefore be seen as a typically British policy. Many Britons were guilty long after World War one. Guilty that their imperial aims had led to such a bloody war, guilty that they had punished a nation with so many cultural similarities who had gone to war for the same aims and guilty that they had sat back and forced the German people to turn to a dictator for help. If the British could stop these dictators from getting their publics into difficulties and help these countries back into the international community then they would be acting as Britons should. Britain had become industrialized and civilized before anyone else, it was her job to act as the world s mother, encouraging developing countries into more civilized and peaceful times. It was this culture which possibly led to the British public not questioning the policy of appeasement, which in turn, strengthened Chamberlain s resolve. 10

11 3) British economic situation The British economic situation was a heavy influence on appeasement. World War One was a turning point in British history, the aftermath saw a period of damage limitation by the Cabinet regarding Britain s world status. Britain could no longer afford to be a strong military imperial power and one by one the colonies turned into dominions and then independents. After the Wall street crash in 1929 Britain hit a very dark economic period. The U.S.A started to call back their war loans in larger instalments and Hitler stopped reparations so Britain went into negative equity. This economic situation pushed towards appeasement because Britain could not afford to re-arm. Furthermore, the cost of another war would mean the end of the Empire and Britain s position in the world. Moreover, appeasement might lead to the re-opening of Anglo-German trade links. The British economist Keynes had always urged that German trade was essential for British economic recovery. An economic union between Britain and Germany would mean Europe could begin to challenge isolationist America. 4) British worldwide commitments British commitments in the 1930s were stretched across the world from Sydney to London. The economic situation meant that the government had to review and prioritise these commitments in order that they might remain in control of some of them. Chamberlain was a proud imperialist and felt that the empire gave Britain its livelihood and character. The new imperial Japan was a huge threat to British interests in the far East and so was a huge reason for appeasement. Britain had to reduce the number of potential enemies around the world and it made sense to deal with the closest European threats first. Once Europe was at peace then Britain could turn its attention to the protection of the Empire. Chamberlain s second biggest headache on the worldwide stage was the spread of communism and this again was an important reason for appeasement in In 1938 Hitler had only expressed intentions to take back land with German peoples living in it, Russia on the other hand had declared their intentions to support a worldwide communist revolution, Russia was therefore seen as a bigger threat to Britain than Germany. Chamberlain s conservative, elitist principles stood him firmly against Bolshevism and he believed Hitler could be utilised as a buffer against the spread of Communism across Europe. If Britain and Germany destroyed each other in war it would leave the gate of Europe open to Russia. A strong Germany was a welcome relief for the right wing in London. 5) British relations with other countries Another key factor leading to appeasement was Britain s relations with other countries. In 1938 Britain had a relatively small amount of international friends and so Chamberlain could possibly be excused for trying to make a new one in Germany. Chamberlain had no faith in the French.The 1930s had seen a string of short, weak French governments who never really gave any clear policy direction. Revolutionary Communist Russia was a huge threat to Europe as a whole and Italy had proven to be an unpredictable pain down in the Mediterranean. Isolationist U.S.A were unreliable and although Roosevelt expressed sympathy for Chamberlain s problems, his actions were controlled by a strong congress and an anti-european American public. Japan was also proving to be a real threat to British interests in the Far East. Chamberlain s personal attitude to particular countries certainly bolstered his resolve to appease Hitler. He viewed Czechoslovakia as a false, unstable country which would inevitably collapse. It would be far better if that collapse was controlled by Britain and used as a bartering weapon against Hitler. Moreover Chamberlain viewed many non-european, non-white countries as mere real estate to be used in diplomatic dealings. It was Chamberlain s attitudes to these countries that allowed Hitler and Mussolini to run over them without opposition. Overall Britain s diplomatic situation in 1938 naturally lent itself to appeasement. Chamberlain had no real allies he could trust to help him build a front against Hitler. He did not trust the French, the Russians or the Italians; the U.S.A were not interested and the Japanese were only interested in themselves. What is more, many British (including Chamberlain) felt a cultural affinity with the Germans. Chamberlain felt that Hitler had a legitimate grievance in the Sudetenland and a successful political alliance with Germany would form a union against American arrogance and Russian dominance. 11

12 The causes of World War Two The causes of World War Two have sparked a great deal of debate amongst Historians and simplistically this debate can be split into two schools of thought. One group supports the 30 year war argument which proposes that the Second World War was an inevitable continuation of the First World War and the inter war period was simply an armistice. The other school of thought is that it was Hitler s war where circumstance brought a megalomaniac to power who s dream to dominate Europe made war inevitable after Possible headings for the causes of World War Two The following headings are not a definitive list. There are other ways to approach this topic; however, they offer a broad approach which allows for counter arguments and a good final conclusion. However, if you wish to use different headings and reach different conclusions it is fine, but you must justify your arguments. Other possible headings could include the following: US isolationism The fear of communism Mussolini s imperialism Anglo-French disunity 1) The Legacy of World War One and Versailles The First World War ended abruptly without a clear winner and so for most of the inter war period many parties saw it as unfinished business. Versailles sowed the seeds for future conflict because it angered countries like Germany, Italy and Russia. Moreover compromise meant that Germany was left intact and able to regain strength and seek revenge in the future. The treaty became the most important focus of French and German foreign ministries and so it dominated and tarnished international relations which made diplomacy very difficult. The legacy of Versailles was important because it stunted European growth and didn t allow countries to leave the war in the past and rebuild Europe together. There was no moment when the revision of Versailles didn t dominate International relations, but most importantly, hatred of Versailles was the foundation of Hitler s foreign policy and an important reason for his rise to power. However, there is always resentment after war and it was accepted practice that the winners should be compensated. Germany was not really any worse off than any other participant and history proves that resentment does not make war inevitable. Furthermore, it must not be forgotten that by the early 1920s everyone except the French accepted that Versailles needed to be revised. The work of the Locarno era went a long way towards not only revising the treaty but also rebuilding international relations. In this sense 1929 was a far more important year than

13 2) The Great Depression The depression caused dictatorships, extremism and expansionism. Britain, France and the US (Roosevelt s New Deal) retreated to isolation with the first two relying on their empires. They became suspicious of one another which led to poor cooperation during the crisis of the 1930s and the depression meant they could not justify rearmament. This directly led to the British policy of appeasement and the French retreat behind the Maginot line. Italy and Japan followed the British and French example and began looking for their own empires to find new resources and boost public morale; this expansionism caused conflict and the muddling of alliances in Europe. Most importantly the desperation caused by the depression gave power to Hitler and the Japanese military. In short, if we believe that it was Hitler s war, then 1929 significantly began Hitler s rise to power and explains the democracies inability to oppose him in his early years. However, Hitler s rise to power was not caused by the wall street crash but rather by the reaction to the Wall Street Crash. In other words, if there had been better collective security and cooperation after 1929 then perhaps Germany s problems could have been alleviated and extremism would not have become popular. Therefore, perhaps the failure of collective security was more significant than the depression. After World War One the world powers should have prepared themselves for a depression and a better response to it in 1929 may have diverted disaster. 3) The failure of collective security The 1920s give us a stark example of the importance of collective security. In the early 20s Britain and the US sat back and watched Franco-German relations disintegrate and then explode at the Ruhr. However, after 1924, the benefits of collaboration were evident. The Locarno era saw the world move away from the economic and psychological scars of WW1 and a future peace seemed possible. It was vital therefore that this collaboration continued when the world met the crisis in Perhaps if the democracies had reacted to the depression with free trade and cooperation then confidence would have returned far more quickly to the market. Evidence of this can be seen in the economic cooperation of the 1950s which had such positive effects on war torn countries. The crucial consequence, of course, would have been that the Germans, Italians and Japanese may not have turned to extremist ideas. Moreover, the failure of collective security continued as extremism grew and by the time Hitler was Chancellor in 1933 it was too late. However, the failure of collective security does not explain war. Again, if you support the Hitler s war theory, then the amount of collective action against him was only ever going to affect the timing. Appeasement delayed the war by a year and maybe US or Soviet opposition may have delayed it further. However, once Hitler was in power, his policies meant that a conflict was inevitable at some stage. Perhaps, the significance of the first three causes is that they all helped to bring Hitler to power. However, on their own they do not make war inevitable. The Locarno era proved that resentment, economic depression and a lack of cooperation could be overcome if everyone wanted peace. However after 1933 this was not the case. 13

14 4) Hitler Most historians now agree that the chief responsibility for unleashing war on Europe in 1939 rests with Hitler and the Nazis. Some argue that Hitler was merely reacting to the international situation and the weakness and disunity of other leaders; however this argument is thin when you consider that Hitler had published his aim for European domination in Mein Kampf in 1924, well before the Wall Street Crash and the troubled 30s. The Locarno era had shown that diplomacy and international cooperation could ease tension and economic crisis and so there was no reason to believe that a compromise could not be found in the 1930s. Blaming the western democracies for not destroying Hitler in the early years is poor hindsight history and is similar to blaming the British for not helping the French to finish off Germany in US isolationism, the depression and the fear of communism could quite easily have been motivations for Western Europe to put aside their past and work more closely as similar circumstance did from 1945 onwards. Blaming appeasement for Hitler s actions is like blaming indifferent parenting for an adult s criminal behaviour. If Hitler was just another German leader of the inter-war period then he would have been happy with his achievements in reversing the territorial constraints imposed at Versailles. Hitler did not want to pursue German aims through the established international system (like his predecessors) he wanted to destroy the international order and replace it with a continent dominated by an Aryan super race. Conclusion The causes of World War Two is a specific topic and it is not the same as a question on the causes of conflict from At A2 level you must be careful to answer a question specifically. For example, for a question on the Causes of World War Two you must illustrate why your chosen causes led directly to war in 1939 and not why they caused general hostility/conflict. It is easy, under exam pressure, to misinterpret a question. What is the difference between the two questions below? To what extent was German foreign policy mainly responsible for the failure of collective security between 1919 and 1939? (2006) The failure of collective security between 1919 and 1939 was responsible for the outbreak of war in Discuss. (2003) To what extent was Germany the main threat to Europe in the period ? Jan

15 Conflict or Reconciliation? Reconciliation 1924 The Dawes Plan 1925 The Locarno agreement 1926 Germany enters the league of Nations 1928 The Kellog-Briand Pact 1929 The Young Plan 1934 The Stresa Front Conflict 1923 The Ruhr invasion 1931 The Manchurian crisis 1933 Japan leaves the League of Nations 1934 Hitler becomes Fuhrer of Germany 1935 Italy invades Abyssinia 1936 The Spanish Civil War and the Rhineland is re-militarized by Hitler 1937 Japan attack China 1938 German Anchluss (union) with Austria 1938 German invasion of the Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia) and the Munich conference 1939 The Polish Guarantee and the outbreak of War Above is a simple list of events that might help you in answering a question focused on either conflict or reconciliation or both. If you look closely at your past paper questions you will notice that each one has a unique focus and so there is no point giving you pre-prepared paragraphs like in HI1. You must have a good knowledge of the whole period and then you must assess the thrust of the question and then focus your knowledge specifically. You will not have time to write about every event so you must select the knowledge you use carefully ensuring it is the most relevant and gives coverage to the whole period in the question. Below are some examiner s tips on HI4 technique and a student friendly markscheme. 15

16 Examiner s comments on HY4 N.B At AS level the examiner is desperate to give you marks. At A2 they are far more demanding. There is a big step from AS to A2 in terms of the examiner s expectations HI4 questions will either be To what extent or an interpretation followed by Discuss. Therefore your answers must be balanced, focused on the question and come to a judgment. Examiners are far more critical of your historical knowledge at A2 level. Your factual knowledge must be detailed and relevant. For example, it is not good enough to talk about the Locarno era generally; you must know names of foreign ministers and names of treaties and their terms and consequences. In short, if you want an A, your knowledge must stand out. Two common mistakes at HY4 1. Students do not make the jump to A2 level. In HY1 (question b) you can get away with writing a pre-prepared list of reasons. This will not be good enough for HY4 and you will not be able to get out of level 2. Each factor/argument and every fact used must be directly relevant to the question. You must be constantly answering the question if you hope to achieve the top levels. One examiner said students must be like a dog with a bone, never letting go of the question! 2. Timing. In the HY4 exam you have to write two essays in 1hr 40 mins. Every year the second essay is consistently worse. It is far better to write two good essays than one excellent and one poor. Below are some tips on timing: Write an essay plan and stick to it Finish the first essay after 45 minutes and shut your mind off for 3 minutes before you begin to plan the second essay. Start with your weaker topic. Remember two sides of reasoned argument will always outscore 4 sides of partially relevant knowledge. It s not a competition to see who can write the most but a competition to see who can answer the question most succinctly. Points to remember: You must identify exactly what the question is asking. Identify key words and the overall thrust. Summarise it in your own words at the start of your plan. Make sure you are making judgments on the question throughout the essay but particularly at the start and end. Relevant argument Impressive historical knowledge Don t pre-prepare factors and then force them to fit the question. You must read and understand the question and then search your mind for arguments and knowledge that are relevant. 16

17 HY4 Mark scheme Assessment Objectives AO1 a Historical knowledge 12 of 40 (24 out of 80 for both Intnl Relations and Britain) AO1b Historical Explanation 28 out 40 (56 out of 80 for both Intnl Relations and Britain) You can see from the allocation of marks that it will not be good enough to make a list of facts and pretend it s an essay. You must use your knowledge to form clear and sophisticated arguments. Types of Questions 1. To what extent This question requires a series of mini judgements to evaluate the key question. Eg; To what extent is Germany mainly responsible for causing WW2? Germany is mainly responsible because. Versailles is also responsible for causing WW2, but less/more so than Germany because.in conclusion the factor mainly responsible for causing WW2 is.. 2 Discuss This question requires a series of mini evaluations and a judgement eg; The seeds of the 2 nd world war were planted in 1938 at Munich, not in 1919 at Versailles. Discuss. Versailles oversaw the beginnings of war because Munich oversaw the beginnings of war because.in conclusion. was more important in making war inevitable because. Intro-NOT - in this essay I am going to write about or yes,i agree with the question NO WAFFLE, NO ANSWERS BUT either define terms set scene linking anecdote 3 / 4 lines only Try and include 5 factors/main issues (including your topic given in the question, which should be your first paragraph) and ensure you cover the whole question arguing in a sustained way throughout to ANSWER THE QUESTION. Debate throughout. Conclusion short, an answer in a nutshell and make sure it is a definitive answer (explicit judgement). Do NOT say some historians say-only use historians to support your argument. Mark Scheme Level 1 (AO1: 1-3 AO1b: 2-14) The answer will be descriptive or limited in scope and accuracy. Spelling and grammar may be weak. The answer will not often be focussed on the set question and will show limited understanding.. Level 2 (AO1: 4-6 AO1b: 8-14) The answer will display general historical knowledge of the topic but will still be limited in range or depth. There will be some lapses in spelling and grammar and coherence will not be sustained. The answer will be generally focussed on the topic area. The answer will attempt a judgement with some support. Level 3 (AO1: 7-10 AO1b: 15-21) The answer will deploy mostly accurate and specific historical knowledge. It will be largely coherent. Answers will be expressed clearly although spelling may be variable and grammatical rules inconsistently applied. The answer will focus on the set question mostly. The answer will reach a judgement which has a reasonable degree of substantiation. Level 4 (AO1: AO1b 22-28) The answer will display a high level of historical accuracy and coherence. Selection of supporting information will be effective and relevant. Spelling will be accurate and grammatical rules consistently applied. The answer will be fully focussed on the set question. The judgements reached will be fully substantiated. 17

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