CHAPTER-III POKHRAN II AND AFTERMATH

Transcription

1 does." 2 Indian expectations were unfounded when President Clinton Indicated that it CHAPTER-III POKHRAN II AND AFTERMATH After twelve years of Republican rule when Democratic President took over in January 1993 there was virtual euphoria in India because as compared to Republicans Democrats are considered to be more favourable for India. Prime Minister P.V. Narsimha Rao found United States blessed with a young and vibrant leader, in his congratulatory message to William Jefferson Bill Clinton. India expected the resurgence of warm relations between the two countries, which prevailed during Kennedy era. 1 President Bill Clinton had great knowledge on foreign affairs. Leslie Gelb, President of the Council on Foreign Relations had stated that, "President Bill Clinton had probably more information about domestic politics and foreign policy than anyone since Teddy Roosevelt. He thinks, he understands things before he would not be smooth sailing for India. It was apprehended in some quarters that the new administration could pressurize India on three important issues i.e. Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty, human rights and trade related issues. 3 It was so because Clinton's foreign policy stood on twin pillars. One was nuclear non proliferation and the other was the issue of human rights. President Bill Clinton brought nuclear non proliferation and human rights issue as an integral part of American national security policy. The President's attitude towards India was not very favorable for close Indo- American relations. There were many officials like Robin Raphel, who had experience of conducting the foreign affairs in cold war environment, were responsible for Clinton s this type of attitude towards India. It was extremely difficult for them to deal the world without a rival. They could not change themselves according to the new environment. 4 During the starting years of administration, Assistant Secretary of the State for South Asian Affairs, Robin Raphel had almost ruined the chances of improvement in Indo-US relations. President Clinton and his top officials gave unpalatable remarks on the issue of Kashmir and Human Rights. Ms. Raphel, virtually dropped a bombshell when on October 28, 1993 she said that United States did not recognize the accession of Kashmir to India and Kashmir was not a part of India. 5 Kashmir issue became more complicated because of American interest and its endorsement of Pakistan's stand on Kashmir. India insisted on 71

2 offer. 6 United States considered Kashmir problem as human rights issue. Groups resolving issue between India and Pakistan within the frame work of Shimla Doctrine, but Pakistan wanted third party as a mediator. Pakistan hoped that United States would favor Islamabad. President Clinton expressed his views that United States would be ready to mediate over Kashmir, if both India and Pakistan agreed to such an working against India gave negative reports to Amnesty International and Asia Watch. After the complaints against India, some Congressmen even wanted ban on development assistance to India, unless India allowed Amnesty International to investigate the case of alleged violation of human rights by authorities and militants in Kashmir. 7 Interestingly the United States did not raise the issue of human rights violations in China where people were suppressed for demanding democracy. There was a qualitative difference between India's occasional violation of rights in fighting with militants and China's suppression of democratic aspirants. In such unfavorable environment it was very difficult for India and United States to come to a common platform on nuclear issue. President clearly stated in United Nations that non-proliferation was one of his key priorities. While addressing United Nations in September 1993 he stressed the need to control the growth of nuclear weapons. He first wanted to control and then elimination of all nuclear weapons. He saw the danger of nuclear weapons having the potential to destabilize the world.with the use of a nuclear weapon, the local conflict would be converted into a global conflict. This way a local conflict could wipe all countries of the region. President wanted the International Atomic Energy Agency be strengthened for controlling nuclear weapons and reducing the number of countries possessing nuclear weapons. He asserted that his administration would take all necessary measures to suppress the proliferation of nuclear weapons, as nuclear weapons were dangerous not only for the human beings but also for the environment, plants and other living things. 8 President Clinton sought non-proliferation for which he undertook to provide whatever needed. Technology was to be used for peaceful purposes accepting international measures, and ensuring that the technology was not used for military purposes. 9 President Clinton declared the adoption of some new policies for curbing the proliferation. First of all, material for nuclear weapons was to be controlled. 72

3 Stockpiles of material like enriched uranium and plutonium falling in the hands of terrorists and rouge states, were to be checked. The production of such material was to be banned by international agreements. The existing material was to be kept under control with no further production of the material, the nuclear weapons could be eliminated. 10 Elimination of nuclear weapons can only be achieved, if the testing of new weapons was banned. The nations who sought to have nuclear weapons by testing their capabilities and the nuclear weapon states upgrading their existing arsenals, both were setbacks to non-proliferation. Therefore, President Clinton stated in United Nations to start negotiations towards the comprehensive ban on testing. United States would follow if other countries suspend these testing of nuclear weapons. The President proposed new efforts to control the proliferation of biological and chemical weapons. Non-proliferation of these weapons could be achieved if more powers were given to Biological Weapons Convention. Every nation was required to open all biological and chemical facilities to international supervisions. President Bill Clinton argued in his statement that to ensure total non-proliferation of nuclear, biological and chemical weapon, United States would work with its cold war adversaries like Russia. President knew that proliferation of nuclear weapons cannot be controlled only by US efforts, so he sought the help of other countries to achieve the goal. 11 India called US efforts for non-proliferation as discriminatory in nature. There were huge differences between India and US on nuclear issue till early 1990s. There was notable change in US perceptions regarding India which was the result of Indian economic reforms. This time India took a bold initiative to launch new policies with regard to its industry, trade and economy. 12 The reforms started in early 1990s under the Congress-led government of then Prime Minister P.V Narshimha Rao. These reforms boosted the economic growth. Indian economy enjoyed an average growth rate above 6% in 1990s. It led to huge foreign investment into India. Annual foreign direct investment was about $ 100 million in 1990, which rose to $ 2.4 billion in mid of 1990s. More than one third of the investment was by major US companies. 13 A study conducted by US Commerce Department, predicted that India would be one among the ten big emerging markets in the world, whose likely share of the world's Gross Domestic Product would double in two decades from the current 10 percent to 20 percent. 14 There was a positive turn between the two countries, and the credit for preparing the ground went to domestic developments both in India and in United 73

4 States. American businessman were also watching the growth of Indian economy. Indo-American community was very important in United States, and administration in America could not ignore that community while taking foreign policy decisions. US government had to keep in mind its people and their interest. This time India was making its presence felt in every important field globally, and came to be noted by US businessmen. 15 In 1994, Ms. Robin Raphel and her boss Deputy Secretary of State Strobe Talbott, visited India with the promise that United States sought good political relationship between the two countries for facilitating trade and investment relations. This visit was not just a routine tour. It was a test of the seriousness of the recent downturn in Indo-US relation. Controversial Raphel had the satisfaction of having achieved exactly what she had come for. This time the US tone on the issues of Kashmir, human rights and nuclear Non-Proliferation was somewhat positive. That change was attributed to perceived American interest in Indian economy. 16 The visiting team underlined was that "Clinton Administration determined to expand and strengthen relations with India and that there was a lot of misunderstandings which was to be removed for setting the stage for going forward." 17 President Clinton and Ms. Robin Raphel appreciated India s efforts to set up Human Rights Commission. United States also had made it clear that the sale of aircraft F-16 to Pakistan will only go through if Islamabad gave guarantees of capping and rolling back its nuclear weapons programme. 18 It appeared as if Clinton Administration's efforts to focus ties with India was back on the track. President Clinton wrote to Prime Minister P.V Narsimha Rao, indicating desire to work for enhancing Indo-American economic interaction. Clinton Administration had carefully observed the evolution of Indian economic reforms. Nuclear non-proliferation was on his priority list, but he was fully aware of economics and wanted to revive the country's economic position. He could not ignore Indian economy which could help serve American interests. 19 Prime Minister Narsimha Rao, visited United States in May A little before his visit, Lee Hamilton, Chairman House of Foreign Committee, stressed that United States should care about India because it was not possible to ignore India. He appreciated India by saying that India would overtake China in 21 st century, because India had fifth largest economy, fourth largest army and second largest number of computer professionals. 20 During the Prime Minister s visit nuclear issue came up. Prime Minister cleared Indian position by insisting that New Delhi would exercise 74

5 nuclear restraint only within a global framework. United States conveyed its disappointment to New Delhi on this sensitive issue, but India did not change its stand. Prime Minister Rao, had given an assurance to President Clinton that India would not create any problem for the United States efforts to extend the Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty because United States was planning to extend the treaty forever, and India was one of the nations who did not support and sign the treaty. There was fear in United States Administration that India could create problem for United States by conducting any anti-npt campaign globally especially among the non-aligned nations. 21 As a result to negotiations between the P.M. Narsimha Rao and President Clinton open criticism of India on human rights record was withdrawn. P.M. also gave assurance to President that India would go slow on the missile programme. After the Prime Minister s visit to the United States, there was no looking back. It was an upward march in relationship. In the economic field, the US emerged as the largest investor in India mainly in power, infrastructure and many other industries. Bilateral trade with the United States grew by 19% in 1995 alone going up from $ 7.5 billion in 1994 to $ 9 billion in United States exports to India increased by 44% while imports from India rose by 8%. 22 In January 1995, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between the US Commerce Secretary and Indian Commerce Minister Pranab Mukherjee to facilitate closer business to business links between the two countries. 23 On May 11, 1995 United States President Bill Clinton achieved its most important victory when Nuclear Proliferation Treaty, the centre part of United States Nuclear Non-Proliferation Policy, was extended indefinitely and without any conditions by the United Nations conference. The conference also decided to strengthen the NPT review process. United Nations conference accepted a number of principles for disarmament and nuclear non-proliferation. The Review and Extension conference held negotiations for four weeks to achieve this milestone. 24 This conference was held at New York from April 17 to May 12, Delegates from 175 nations out of 179 attended the Conference, Chile joined the conference on final day. This was done through a process of consensus. 25 The Treaty, which was signed in 1968 and went into effect in 1970, was due to expire in Thus in 1995, a conference was needed to decide whether it should be extended forever or for a fixed 75

6 time. Therefore, The Review and Extension Conference was held and had taken the decision by simple majority of all signatories. 26 Ambassador Thomas Graham Jr. who was the chief negotiator at the conference gave his statement regarding the treaty at the Woodrow Wilson Centre in Washington. According to Mr. Thomas Graham the treaty was a permanent landmark on arms control horizon. Extension of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty legitimized the possession of nuclear weapons by only five countries i.e. United States of America, Russia, Great Britain, China and France. The treaty prevented the development of nuclear weapons by all other countries. The Review and Extension Conference made International Atomic Energy Agency more powerful and if a country acquired technology for peaceful purposes, then UN enforced inspections and safeguards would prevent countries from diverting nuclear facility and material for military use or weapon development. 27 On 13 May 1995 when President Bill Clinton submitted the Annual Report of the United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA), where he appreciated ACDA's efforts towards nuclear Non-Proliferation. President gave total credit of extension of the Treaty to Arms Control and Disarmament Agency. This Agency was setup in 1961 by the efforts of Dean Rusk because non-proliferation was possible only with an independent and technically strong arms control and nonproliferation agency. President Mr. Clinton stated the Agency's dedication towards non-proliferation and also told that its first major achievement, was the establishment of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty twenty five years ago. And second, the treaty was extended indefinitely without any condition, only due to ACDA's long term efforts of twenty five years. If America was secured, it was due to Agency's professional staff and its dedicated leadership. President while announcing its report decided that ACDA would remain independent and would continue to play an important role in United States efforts of nuclear non-proliferation. 28 The five nuclear weapon states announced some security assurances to nonnuclear weapon states who signed Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. These announcements came before the NPT Review and the Extension Conference. The Conference started its negotiations on 17 April 1995 to 12 May 1995, and these assurances were given between April 5 to April 12, 1995 at Geneva and New York. By these assurances five nuclear weapon states wanted the support of non-nuclear weapon states for the extension of the treaty. Nuclear weapon states wanted to secure 76

7 their interests by extending the treaty indefinitely. With the extension of NPT, nuclear weapons would become the asset of these five states only. No other country could possess nuclear weapons. To keep non-nuclear weapon nations silent at the time of extension, positive and negative security assurances were given to these countries. The positive security assurances United States included that it would provide support and immediate assistance, in accordance with UN Charter, to any non-nuclear state, in case of threatened by a nuclear weapon state. 29 However, in terms of effectiveness of these assurances, the means available to the United Nations Security Council inadequate for to preventing a nuclear attack. These assurances were not novel as similar assurances were given by nuclear weapon states when the treaty came into existence. Negative security assurance included that United States would not use any nuclear weapon against a non-nuclear weapon state. This was also not a straight assurance as it was full of conditions. United States was not likely to take care of its assurances given by it to non-nuclear weapon states, if a non-nuclear weapon state attacked United States, its territories, its forces and troops, and states with which United States had security commitments. 30 These assurances were given only to the NPT signatories which did not have nuclear weapons. The non-signatories could avail these assurances only if they signed Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. By these assurances United States wanted to pressurize non-signatories state to sign the treaty. These assurances were full of many ifs and buts and there were little chances of their implementation. 31 As the Review and the Extension Conference started working, disputes started emerging between the nations that possessed nuclear weapons and non-nuclear weapon states. Nuclear weapon states and their allies like Japan and Germany sought an unconditional and indefinite extension. United States allies wanted extension of treaty with some changes. China sought time bound extension initially, but later, it changed its decision to indefinite extension. 32 Non-aligned nations like Nigeria, Uganda, Mexico, Venezuela, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Iran, Malaysia and Indonesia were opposed to indefinite extension. These non-nuclear weapons states demanded a free exchange of technology for peaceful use. There was provision in Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty, which nuclear weapon states did not adhere to that permitted the transfer of technology for peaceful purposes. 33 Another issue of distrust between five "have" nations and "have not" nations was "the issue of disarmament. Under the Article VI of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, nuclear weapon states were tol 77

8 states. 37 Non-nuclear weapon states pleaded with United States that they would give reduce their nuclear arsenals at an early date. When Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty came into existence in 1968, nuclear weapon states, particularly United States of America and Soviet Union advocated this treaty as a tool for disarmament. But they failed to fulfill their commitments. In reality, nuclear weapon stockpiles increased after the treaty. After the end of the cold war, in early 1990s, the efforts were intensified to reduce the nuclear stockpile. United States had taken steps to eliminate the nuclear stockpiles after the disintegration of Soviet Union. It also tried to denuclearize states, by giving them economic benefits. Disarmament did not start with Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. 34 It is difficult to visualise that nuclear weapon nations can totally get rid of their nuclear arsenals. Because the treaty provides them a legitimate basis to retain nuclear weapons. The efforts by United State of America and former Soviet Union's to reduce their arms under various treaties were very limited ones. These efforts did not fulfill the purpose of disarmament. They did not cut down their nuclear stockpiles beyond a limit, because their efforts for reduction of weapons were opposed even by their own governments. The US argued that the aim of the extension of the treaty was to achieve a world free of nuclear weapons. But these statements proved to be rhetoric as in Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty there is no such legal body which could forcibly impose its policies on nations. 35 Several Arab countries led by Egypt protested against the nuclear weapons of Israel. They stated that they would never give their support to the extension of the treaty until and unless Israel signed the treaty as a non-nuclear weapon state. There was only one non-aligned nation Sri Lanka, which supported the extension of treaty. 36 When the Review & extension conference was held at New York, India did not participate in the conference. India was on its firm stand and opposed the treaty on some important grounds, but with this India strongly followed the principles of nonproliferation as a responsible nation. India did not export any technology related to nuclear weapons. It has a full control over its weapons of mass destruction. India followed the policies of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty without signing it, because India has its security compulsions, hence it cannot compromise with NPT in its present form, but India has firm belief in non-proliferation than other signatory their support to extension of the treaty if nuclear weapon states agreed to ban their 78

9 testing of nuclear weapons. Even Mexico presented its own proposal for an indefinite extension with several conditions including a ban on nuclear tests by early date. Bowing to the pressure, nuclear weapon nations agreed to take steps towards ban on nuclear tests. The commitment by five nuclear weapon countries cleared the way for agreement on extending the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. After the extension of the treaty on August 11, 1995, US President Bill Clinton sought support to ban the nuclear tests. Speaking at White House, President told that he would fulfill his commitment to ban the nuclear tests. Negotiations to conclude Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) would be started soon so that a treaty could be signed by He announced his decision to sought a zero yield CTBT. A zero field Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty would ban any nuclear weapon test explosion. Coincidently President gave this statement to ban the nuclear test exactly fifty year after the United States dropped the first bomb on Hiroshima, a city of Japan. 38 American President specified some safeguards which could protect American interests under the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty.President Bill Clinton said that he would strengthen intelligence monitoring, verification system, stockpile stewardship, maintenance of United States laboratories. United States would sign the Comprehension Test Ban Treaty. United States would upgrade it laboratories to ensure that United States nuclear weapon remain safe and reliable. America could test its nuclear capability through the laboratories under Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. If US signed, it could pressurize other countries to sign this Treaty. This way, United States undertook to stop proliferation of nuclear weapons but US could still conduct tests in laboratories. President stated that his predecessors President Eisenhower and Kennedy wanted comprehensive test ban to prevent proliferation, which they could not achieve but in the changed times treaty was within reach. He wanted to put all his efforts to sign and ratify the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. 39 The first step in the form of limited ban on nuclear testing was taken by great powers United States and Soviet Union in It banned the testing of nuclear weapon in the atmosphere. In 1974, under the administration of President Nixon, United States signed Threshold Test Ban Treaty with Soviet Union which prohibited underground nuclear tests with an explosive power greater than tons of TNT. Senate gave its approval to this treaty in After the ratification of Threshold Test Ban Treaty, United Nations tried to persuade the nuclear weapon states to broaden the agreement and convert this treaty into a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. But nuclear 79

10 weapon countries, United States, Soviet Union, China, Britain and France did not want to give up their right to test their weapons. 40 They were testing their weapons before going into production. The five nuclear weapon states had signed the NPT, but they were violating it grossly. They had committed to take steps towards disarmament, but in practice were increasing their weapons. Soviet Union's economy was shattered because of its arms race with United States. With Soviet Union collapsing in 1991, Russia declared self moratorium on nuclear testing as Russian government did not have sufficient funds to continue its nuclear programme. Following this American Congress also declared moratorium on nuclear testing in On the other side Britain was testing its weapons in Nevada, but there too United States applied moratorium on Britain. But other two nuclear weapon nations France and China carried on their nuclear programme where France testing was controversial as it could have polluted the environment. Actual discussions of Comprehensive Test Ban were started before the extension of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The permanent members of the Security Council, had to change their policies of nuclear testing under the pressure of non-nuclear weapon states. Finally they agreed to sign the Treaty by United States military did not want a comprehensive ban on nuclear testing. The military wanted "low-level" nuclear tests should remain outside the treaty to ensure the safety and reliability of the nuclear weapons. United States military wanted to test 500 tons of TNT explosive power while Russian military wanted the right to conduct test of a few dozen tons of TNT and the remaining nuclear power countries wanted the same right. President Bill Clinton told that United States military could test the capability and reliability of nuclear weapons under the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. President stated that United States was developing programme for technical checkup of US weapons, under which the Secretaries of Defense and Energy were to certify each year that all United States' nuclear weapons were safe and reliable. If checkup by Defence and Energy Department failed testing was the only way to check reliability, which President could order by invoking the clause "supreme national interest" in the test ban treaty. This way President Bill Clinton could satisfy the military official and clear the way to sign the Treaty. President Clinton acknowledged that United States intelligence agencies did not have adequate capability to monitor the nuclear programme of other countries. To ban the 80

11 ability. 42 There was mix reaction in United States towards President Clinton's proliferation in other countries United States was required to improve its monitoring announcement of Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. People, who were in favor of nonproliferation, appreciated and praised President Clinton. But some conservative interest groups and some Republicans opposed President's action. They stated that it would not be possible for United States to ensure the reliability of its nuclear weapons. Major criticism came from Republican led Senate Armed Services Committee, which believed in nuclear weapon testing and had $ 50 million in funds for the fiscal year 1996 for low-yield nuclear test. On the other side China and France conducted hundreds of nuclear tests, before being a part of Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. United States and other nuclear weapon nations wanted to secure their interests through NPT and CTBT. America was in favor of Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, but carried out tests to secure its supreme national interests. It opened CTBT to ban nuclear tests because it could test its nuclear capability in laboratories while other non-nuclear weapon nations could not avail this type of capability. In 1996, after conducting over 2000 tests, they opened the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty for signature. President Clinton's announcement on Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty on August 11, 1995, made it clear that the treaty was not comprehensive and not related to disarmament, Also the treaty helped United States to preserve its hegemony over nuclear weapons. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty strengthened the possession of weapons by nuclear weapon nations, by preventing other nations from acquiring nuclear technology. 43 India actively participated in negotiations regarding Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty and was in favor of comprehensive test ban on nuclear weapons since 1950s. In 1950s India warned United States regarding the proliferation of nuclear weapons and sought a comprehensive ban on testing. But at that time United States did not take Indian suggestions seriously. But when this treaty was opened for signature, India rejected it and did not sign by calling it discriminatory in nature. 44 The super powers, who have stockpiled nuclear weapons, did not want to eliminate their weapons under a time bound programme. Super powers wanted to impose a discriminatory treaty on the world. India has decided not to sign it. In the assessment of to India CTBT only 81

12 fulfilled the interests of five nuclear weapons states, and curbed other nations nuclear aspiration. 45 President Bill Clinton described his efforts towards non-proliferation and sought the help of other nations to achievement non-proliferation. He told that common efforts could produce the results. President supported Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Belarus in removing nuclear weapons.these three states agreed to return their nuclear weapons to Russia, which were left with them when Soviet Union dissolved. President Clinton and Russian President Boris Yeltsin, agreed for disarmament and committed to sort out the problems that related the world. President Clinton stated that US and Russia were decreasing their nuclear weapons by two thirds from their Cold War era. He emphasized that US's greatest success was to first extend the NPT unconditionally and indefinitely, secondly, 149 nations have signing the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty by mid of These treaties would make it difficult for non-nuclear weapon states to go for nuclear weapons. 46 United States efforts towards non-proliferation which was the core foreign policy issue after the Cold War, were disrupted with Indian nuclear tests at Pokhran in 11 to 13 May of Shakti 99, the Indian Hindi name was given to the series of tests on 11 th May. The same day at this place, first tests of 18 th May 1974 were conducted. 47 India stunned the whole world by declaring itself a nuclear weapon state. India claimed that these tests were conducted due to security threat to India from its neighbourhood. The Prime Minister of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee gave a statement in the House regarding the tests: On 11 May, India successfully carried out three underground nuclear tests. Two more underground tests on 13 May completed the planned series of tests. I would like this House to join me in paying fulsome tribute to our scientists, engineers and defence personnel whose singular achievement have given us a renewed sense of national pride and self-confidence. 48 Government of India announced that three underground nuclear tests were carried out on 11 May 1998 using three different devices, a fission device, a low-yield sub kiloton device and a thermonuclear device. Other tests were carried out on May 13. The result which came from these tests were according to India s expectation

13 Prime Minister of India was submitted a paper in Lok Sabha regarding Indian nuclear policy. He emphasized that India always adopted a policy of nuclear weapon free world, because it would enhance the security of all nations. He argued that when nuclear weapons acquired by US and USSR, Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru called for negotiations for elimination of nuclear weapons and to put a halt on nuclear testing. But no nation had responded. Mr. Vajpayee pointed out that Indian efforts and proposals in the past for nuclear free world had not received positive response from other nuclear weapon states. Prime Minister stated that if India was taken positively, then the current tests could be avoided. With these tests India had not violated any agreement. India always adopted the path of restraint. First test were conducted in 1974, after restraint of 24 years, India demonstrated its capability. 50 Then Indian Home Minister L.K. Advani congratulated Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee for this great work, and said that this action has fulfilled the aspiration of every person of the country. He appreciated P.M. Vajpayee for taking a right step to achieve Indian national security. 51 India wanted to conduct the nuclear tests even prior to 1998, but could not do so because of various reasons. There were some crucial circumstances which pressurized India to put halt on tests. Indian economy was not in good condition, it was not in a position to bear more sanctions from Western side. Western countries like USA and England were threatening sanctions against India. Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi, Narsimha Rao, V.P. Singh, Deve Gowda and Inder Kumar Gujral adopted the policy of self restraint in view of fear of Western sanctions. Also the coalition government, working at the centre under domestic pressure could not bear any more pressure from the Western side on nuclear issue. The fear of Western sanctions prevented the Indian leaders from taking firm stand on the issue. Indian scientists got frustrated, as they were being discouraged. They wanted to check their capability, but they could not do so, because of lack of will to do so by Indian leaders. 52 Even in 1998 when BJP led coalition government under the leadership of Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee took daring step to conduct the nuclear tests, he had to face the criticism from national political parties and major powers of the world. Opposition Congress appreciated scientists and engineers for their achievement. A statement was given by Congress President Sonia Gandhi, on nuclear tests which was read by Mr. Natwar Singh on behalf of Congress party in House. This 83

14 statement revealed that Congress felt proud of scientists because they updated Indian nuclear capability. 53 But Mr. Natwar Singh criticized the Indian Government allegating that Indian government s justification was baseless because there were no security threats to India from China and Pakistan. Mr. Natwar Singh questioned the PM in the House: How serious was this threat? Have the Chinese forces moved round to our borders? Have Pakistan mounted an exercise which threatened the city of Amritsar. 54 He was criticizing the government, he had given his views regarding Pakistan: For 25 years, since 1971, there has been no security threat to India. The Shimla Agreement has ensured that there is no conflict with Pakistan. 55 Indrajit Gupta, a leader from opposition criticized the Indian action of nuclear tests. He stated that nuclear weapons were considered the weapons of mass destruction after Nagasaki and Hiroshima and could not be used for military purpose. Soviet Union collapsed only due to arms race with United States of America and NATO. India cannot become powerful with nuclear weapons. Germany and Japan do not possess nuclear weapons but they are powerful countries. 56 These type of statements were given only to criticize the BJP government because ruling party did not take opposition in confidence while taking the decision of conducting nuclear tests. These coalition government had contacted only its allies. The then Home Minister Mr. L.K. Advani responded to Mr. Natwar Lal s allegations on the issue of Indian security. Mr. L.K. Adwani was speaking in the House on May 28, He said that Mr. Natwar Singh and Mr. Chidambram might remember the election manifesto of 1991 of the Congress Party wherein it acknowledged. Congress Party in its election manifesto felt fear over the Indian security from Pakistan. That manifesto was prepared under the leadership of Mr. Rajiv Gandhi on Indian security, the manifesto read : We are deeply concerned that Pakistan is developing the nuclear weapons. It is hoped that they will desist from this disastrous path. They have already inflicted four wars upon India. In case Pakistan persists with the developing and deployment of nuclear weapons, India 84

15 will be constrained to review her policy to meet the threat. 57 Ruling party had the answer of the allegations, put by opposition parties. Mr. Atal Bihari Vajpayee then P.M. while speaking in house on May 29, 1998 regarding Congress allegation. He said that when Mrs. Gandhi conducted the tests in 1974, whole country welcomed her decision. She did not consult opposition party, but her decision was right and for the security of India. 58 International community s reaction to the nuclear tests was hostile. Official statements came from super power of the world. They did not want to allow any country especially India to enter their hegemonic nuclear club. The nations like United States, Britain and China did not want to see India strong that can played an active role. After the Indian tests, Australia withdrew its High Commissioner to India. Alexender Downer, Foreign Minister of Australia considered nuclear test a terrible thing. He said that Australia would lodge a diplomatic complaint with India and would urge to stop its further nuclear programme. 59 Brazilian government allegated that Indian government had put nuclear non-proliferation regime at risk. Brazil government firmly committed to nuclear disarmament, urged India to sign Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty and Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. 60 Canada also shouted over the tests. Canadian government withdrew its high commissioner, Peter Walker. Canadian Foreign Affair Minister Lloyd Axworthy showed his disappointment with India s decision to carryout nuclear tests. Canadian Minister said that Indian government had done contrary to international non-proliferation regime. Canadian government also pressurized India to sign CTBT and NPT. 61 China, a rival neighbour of India, strongly condemned Indian test. China shouted over India because it was a challenge to its dominance in Asia. China called international community to take rigid stand against India, so that India immediately stopped its nuclear weapon programme. 62 United Kingdom also expressed its worry towards South Asia. Defence Minister George Robertson said that it was not a good day for the world. 63 These nations apprehended that Indian action would lead to instability in South Asia and posed a threat to international peace and security. They expressed concern on the increasing risk of proliferation of nuclear weapons and missiles in South Asia. The super powers and nuclear weapon countries urged India to refrain from nuclear tests and sign Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty without any condition. They said that it was the only way to secure the 85

16 world from deadly weapons. The United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan said that with these tests India chose a path different from the international community. Annan was deeply disturbed by Indian announcement of five nuclear tests. He said, He continued to look forward unequivocal assurances of India and other states that international community s norm on nuclear testing and non-proliferation would be adhered to. 64 Sharpest reaction came from United States of America. President Bill Clinton, who worked very hard in the field of non-proliferation of nuclear weapons and missile development, was stunned after the nuclear explosions by India at Pokhran. President Bill Clinton was optimistic confidence when Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty was extended without any condition and 149 states had signed the CTBT. These treaties were the center piece of United States non-proliferation policy. Through these treaties United States wanted to curb the urge of non-nuclear weapon states to acquire nuclear technology. Efforts of President Clinton for non-proliferation seemed to have failed when India checked its nuclear capability. It disappointed President Clinton when India conducted three test on 11 May, President Clinton informed United States Congress regarding the tests on 13 May He said: Pursuant to section 102 (b) (1) of the Arms Export Control Act, I am hereby reporting that, in accordance with that section, I have determined that India, a nonnuclear weapons state, detonated a nuclear explosive device on May 11, I have further directed the relevant agencies and instrumentalities of the United States government to take the necessary action to impose the sanctions described in section 102 (b) (2) of that Act. 65 President Clinton decided to impose sanctions on India to discourage its nuclear programme. The same day, when President Clinton gave a message to Congress regarding the Indian tests. India had conducted two more tests. President Clinton was at Birmingham to attend the meeting of G-8. On May15, 1998, he addressed his nation on radio from there. He was very disappointed with Indian tests. He assumed that the tests were unjustified and dangerous for South Asia. He informed the people of United Stated of America that he had imposed serious sanctions and suspended economic assistance, military financing and loan guarantees to India. 66 President Clinton expressed his views about fifty years of Indian democracy. He was 86

17 the supporter of India because American economy was enriched by hard working, educated and good Indians. He had a keen interest in strong ties between India and United States. He told that Indian tests made him disappointed. He criticized Indian decision to conduct the tests, at a time when all nations were going away from nuclear weapons. He emphasized that Indian government had put itself at odds with the international community over the nuclear issue. On his radio message, he hoped that India would soon refrain from its nuclear programme and sign NPT and CTBT. 67 On May 18, 1998 President Clinton made a statement regarding the situation in South Asia and Indian security threats. President accepted Indian security threats declaring that India had many problems of diversity; tensions from neighborhood. India was facing problems in preserving the democracy. However, President Clinton did not accept Indian justification of conducting tests by saying that it was not the right way to resolve the problem. Rather such actions made situation worst and it was not the appropriate way to tackle the problem. 68 Senator Brownback from the state of Kansas while speaking in Senate on May 14, 1998 emphasised that the Pakistan should be encouraged to stay away from nuclear tests. He said that there was urgent need to show some carrots to Pakistan, by saying, if you show restraint and wisdom, we would help you. United States would work with Pakistan if it showed moderation. Mr. Brownback urged that United States would to lift the sanctions, if it did not ignite and escalate the chain of nuclear tests. He urged President should give assurance to Pakistan regarding its security from India. 69 He believed that Pressler sanctions had eroded the abilities of Pakistan's military. If assurance to Pakistan to lift Pressler Amendment was given, it would not escalate the tests series. Pakistan knew the support of international community to the policy of non-proliferation. Mrs. Feinstein, the Senator from the state California, Mr. Brownback, Mr. Glenn and Mr. Bryan proposed an amendment number 2405 in Senate. The purpose of that amendment was to express the concern of the Senate regarding the Indian nuclear tests. By this amendment these four Senators wanted to highlight Indian disregard towards United States efforts for non-proliferation. Mrs. Feinstein made a comment on Indian tests by saying that, these tests were merely 70 miles away from the border of Pakistan According to Carnegie Foundation, India had 400 kilograms of plutonium, one plutonium bomb can be made from 6 kilograms of plutonium. Mrs. Feinstein believed that the estimate to construct the amount the bombs can go as high 87

18 as up to 90 bombs. 70 She added that India also possessed several delivery systems including Jaguar, Mirage 2000, Mig-27, and Mig-29 and that missile system of India could carry nuclear bombs. She revealed that Prithvi, could carry 1000 kg payload for 150 kilometers and 500kg payload to 250 kilometers. Agni could carry 1000 kilogram payload to 1500 to 2000 kilometers and India had deployed these Prithvi missile in Punjab, very near to Pakistani border. 71 Mrs. Feinstein stand could be seen as she had pro-pakistan's approach. She closed her eyes from Pakistan's nuclear programme and made all comments against India. With five nuclear weapon states and 144 other nations signing the CTBT, no scope was left for nuclear testing. However, Indian government refused to sign CTBT and NPT. India also refused to enter into safeguard agreement with International Atomic Energy Agency. The amendment 2405 represented the concerns of the Senate condemning the Indian decision to conduct the tests. It supported the President's decision to impose sanctions and called upon the government of India to take immediate steps to take remedial measures. The Senators also wanted the Government of Pakistan and People's Republic of China to keep restraint in response to Indian tests. It urged the government of India to open its all nuclear facilities for International Atomic Energy Agency. 72 Mrs. Feinstein's amendment pressurized President Clinton to take adequate steps against India to control the proliferation and arms race in South Asia. Mrs. Feinstein and her cosponsors supported the President s decision to invoke sanctions against India under Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act of 1994, which is also known as Glenn Act. Mr. Glenn was the cosponsor of Mrs. Feinstein's amendment which was in favor to take severe action against India. She also mentioned that this act would terminate assistance which India was getting under Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, all foreign military assistance to India, all credit guarantees by any United States agency. Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act also prohibited exports of technology, technical assistance, any loan from US banks except humanitarian aid. 73 President agreed with the Senators and that said and he also felt the need for a discussion with Prime Minister of Pakistan to persuade him not to follow the suit. President Clinton while answering the questions in England regarding nuclear proliferation in South Asia, made it clear that if Pakistan was willing to go with United States, US could help it to find out a way to secure it from nuclear India

19 President Bill Clinton had talk with Prime Minister of Pakistan and reassured him US support. 75 President Bill Clinton was very confident that Pakistan would go with United States and would give preference for seeking security through the United States. He gave a statement on May 22, 1998 and believed that Pakistan would do the right thing. He worked hard and spent an enormous amount of time to persuade Pakistan. 76 But he was shocked when Pakistan conducted five nuclear tests on 28 May Tests were held in response to India. With Pakistan s nuclear tests the proliferation increased in South Asia. These tests occurred at the Chagai hills test site. 77 Shortly after the tests were conducted, Pakistan s Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif addressed the people of Pakistan on television. He said in his address that Pakistan has equaled scores with India. Pakistan s Prime Minister announced Pakistan as a nuclear weapon country and said that God had given him an opportunity to conduct the tests for the security of Pakistan. Sharif told that it would follow India by installing medium range missiles with capability to strike at northern and central parts of India. 78 Pakistan s people got together in streets to celebrate that event. Pakistan tests also had met with angry reactions from many countries. It was clear that Pakistan had the capability to conduct the nuclear tests very prior to India. After India and Pakistan carried out tests, a resolution had been adopted by Security Council of United Nations on 6 th June 1998, in which it condemned Indian and Pakistan s tests and called them to stop their nuclear weapon development programme immediately. Security Council felt deeply concerned over the challenges, posed by the Indian and Pakistani tests to non-proliferation regime. Security Council saw the tests as a danger to peace and security in South Asia. The tests by India and followed by Pakistan, increased the risk of arms race in the region and Security Council was determined to prevent such a race which was reaffirmed by the statements made by its Secretary General Kofi Annan. It recalled the principles and objectives of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and stressed the need to move with full implementation of the provisions of the Treaty. This resolution appreciated the efforts of five nuclear powers for non-proliferation. In the resolution Security Council urged that India and Pakistan should come on a common platform and resolve their bilateral issues which caused tensions between these two countries. It appreciated Secretary General Kofi Annan's efforts for encouraging both countries to enter into a dialogue

20 goals. 82 Indian Prime Minister and other BJP leaders tried to calm down the world Although President Clinton imposed the sanctions on India in response of its test, he had to face the criticism from its own government regarding the failure of intelligent agencies. Some Republicans in Congress blamed President Bill Clinton for intelligence failures". In December 1995, intelligent agencies uncovered the Indian plan for nuclear tests, and Indian government could not conduct tests. But in 1998, just two months before the tests, Indian government had given a signal to reconsider its self-moratorium by India of This self moratorium was adopted after the tests of Senator Moyhihan from New York expressed his views in Senate that Bharatiya Janta Party was the first Hindu party to rule India. BJP, in its national agenda for governance which was issued on 18 March 1998, made it clear that India would take all necessary steps and exercise all options to ensure it security and territorial integrity. BJP was determined to evaluate its nuclear policy. Senator Kerry from Nebraska, gave a statement in Senate and blamed United States administration for not paying attention towards Indian nuclear programme. 81 Therefore, under BJP rule India had given clues of its intention to change nuclear policy, to ensure its security. United States did not take the note of Indian intentions which resulted in nuclear explosions. Senators criticised President Bill Clinton for ignoring BJP's agenda. India always stood for disarmament, peace and non-violence before and after the independence. However, security concerns of India mandated by the changed security scenario led India to go for nuclear explosions. There was lack of understanding, on the part of world leaders of Indian security community and justified Indian position. Mr. L.K. Advani the then Home minister announced in Lok Sabha that India s opponents and their friends did not like to see India as nuclear weapon state. They did not adopt such measures when other countries kept on developing their nuclear capabilities. He felt sorry for such an offensive reaction. He said whenever India achieved something and Indian people felt pride but the entire world reacted so badly. He gave examples of Hyderabad and Goa. When Hyderabad was not ready to be part of India and India had to take action. Second case, when Goa was liberated the world community reacted very sharply and a resolution was moved against India in United Nations. Now when India checked its capability the whole world was shouting