III. Democracy. BDO: Nearly every ideological framework claims to further the cause of freedom.

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1 III. Democracy Democracy BDO: Nearly every ideological framework claims to further the cause of freedom. Similarly: Nearly every ideological framework (at least in recent times) also claims to be in favour of democracy. Some exceptions: Fascism, extreme religious fundamentalism/theocracy 1

2 In blue: De jure, self-described democracies In red: Swaziland, Saudi Arabia, Myanmar, Bhutan, Brunei, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Vatican City. (Hallman, 2006) Practically every state is a democracy!? Surprising? Implausible? Maybe, maybe not. It is possible that some political actors who claim to support democracy and some states that claim to be democratic might simply be hypocritical or deceptive. But perhaps, on the other hand, followers of different ideologies [might] simply have different ideas about how to achieve democracy (BDO, 21) 2

3 Democracy? E.g., in the German Democratic Republic (GDR, ) freedom of speech was severely curtailed, surveillance commonplace (e.g., by the Stasi), free competition for public office effectively outlawed. For many, the GDR was anything but democratic a cynical appropriation of the word. Democracy? But, as BDO note, even authoritarian leaders might (sometimes) be sincere in claiming to support democracy. E.g., according to Mao Zedong, the people s democratic dictatorship is a preparation for more open democracy to follow. Democracy is the (alleged) goal, even if nondemocratic (or anti-democratic) means might have to be used to achieve it. 3

4 Another, related, possibility Canadian political theorist C. B. Macpherson (1965): Democracy can be understood as either or both of: a) Government by the people b) Government for the people In sense b), even governments that we might think of as downright oppressive might nonetheless rightly call themselves democratic An Essentially Contested Concept Macpherson s distinction is consistent with BDO s claims: BDO: Democracy, like freedom, is an essentially contested concept (21) It is an ideal that most ideologies espouse, but, since people understand democracy in very different ways, democracy is pursued in very different ways. 4

5 Democracy: The Word Demos the common people, the mob Demokratia rule by the common people In ancient Greece and, for some, in the present day this is commonly understood to contrast with: Aristoi the best, the qualified Aristokratia rule by the best; the most qualified Vulgar Democracy So, attitudes toward democracy may be conditioned by attitudes toward the common people : Among the ancient Greeks (and others since): the uneducated, the unsophisticated, the poor. From this perspective, democracy is a form of class rule: rule by, and for the benefit of, the working class. No surprise: These attitudes have affected the way democracy has been understood historically 5

6 Athenian Democracy I A democratic city-state or polis Proud of their democracy, but some tension between democratic and aristocratic factions. (see, e.g., Pericles s Funeral Oration) Countermeasures to mob rule : Citizens paid to attend assembly, to serve on juries. Some public offices filled by lottery. Athenian Democracy II The public-spirited citizen (polites) is to be preferred over the self-interested individual (idiotes). Why? In part, better decisions. Pericles: we are all sound judges of a policy (21). On the other hand, not every Athenian was a citizen: Women, slaves, resident foreigners were excludedfrom the franchise. In fact, only about 10% of the Athenian population were citizens. 6

7 Ostracism An ostrakon calling for the banishment of Themistocles. Also, by modern standards, Athenian democracy afforded little protection for individual and minority rights. Witness the case of Socrates ( BCE) Beginnings of Political Theory Plato ( BCE): Not only does democracy risk rule by the ignorant, it is also inherently unstable. The poor selfishly will plunder the rich; the ignorant will be susceptible to demagogues. Result? Disorder, leading the people eventually to accept the rule of tyrants. 7

8 Aristotle s Classification of Regimes Public In whose interest? Self The one Monarchy Tyranny Rule by The few Aristocracy Oligarchy The many Polity Democracy True Perverted Polity and the Mixed Regime Polity is preferable to democracy, according to Aristotle. Citizens of a polity seek the common good and, therefore, are more apt to implement a mixed constitution or government. Limitations on power, checks and balances Polity also depends on a relatively equal distribution of wealth. People with sufficient and moderate wealth (a middle class ) have a stake in society and will therefore seek order and stability. They will naturally see the good of the polis as their own good. 8

9 Athenian democracy, it is said, finds its clearest theoretical expression (with Aristotle), just as it begins to be eclipsed by the rise of empire. First under Philip of Macedonia ( BCE), then under Aristotle s one-time student, Alexander the Great ( BCE), power passes into the hands of an emperor. The independent city-state and rule by the many fade in significance. Republic The idea of popular government survives in the ancient world in the form of republican rule in Rome. Republic < Latin res publica, the public business, literally the public thing. A system of government in which there is no monarch and governance of the state is carried out by the people or their representatives. 9

10 Polybius s View The Greek historian Polybius (c BCE) was a great admirer of the Roman Republic (509 ca: 31 BCE). Why? A mixed form of government. No one neither the one, the few, nor the many holds all the power. Moreover, a republic, in contrast to a democracy, promotes virtue: The public-minded citizen is given scope to work for the common good, but is prevented from seizing too much power. From Republic to Empire As with Athenian democracy, the Roman Republic gives way to empire (i.e., after the rise of Caesar Augustus in 27 BCE). The Roman Empire provides the social context (and later, following the Emperor Constantine [ CE], the political context) for the development of a universal Christian church 10

11 Christianity and Democracy On the one hand, Christian egalitarianism seems a natural ally of democracy: Rich or poor, slave or free, Greek, Jew or Roman, all are equal in the eyes of God On the other hand, early Christianity is largely apolitical: render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar s, render unto to God the things that are God s (Luke 20:25) Christianity and Democracy II Moreover, Christians have often advocated the idea of political passivity in the face of God-given authority : Let every person be subject to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except from God, and those that exist have been instituted by God (Romans 12:1) Later on, this idea strongly contributes to the rise of feudalism and the idea of the great chain of being 11

12 Ancient Times to Modernity: Highlights Italian Renaissance: Re-emergence of the republican city-state. Machiavelli s Discourses (1531) a government of laws, not of men Harrington s Oceana (1656) redistribution of land in a balanced republic British North America: Re-emergence of the ideal of democratic government Tocqueville Alexis de Tocqueville ( ); Democracy in America Democracy, says Tocqueville, is the American ethos; not just in government, but in civil society as well. Its promise: Civic virtue through participation Its danger: Tyranny of the majority 12

13 The Growth of Democracy The 19 th century: Increasing popularity of democracy due to social, economic, technological changes. (Literacy, industrial production, communications) Gradual expansion of the franchise; first to propertyowing males, then universal male suffrage, later freed-slaves, much later women, later still Indigenous peoples... Self-Protection, Self-Development The Utilitarian philosophers, esp. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, argue for representative democracy with a greatly expanded franchise. Self-Protection: Each individual has an opportunity to look out for his or her own interests. Self-Development: Political participation develops civic virtue and educates citizens, leading to better policies and better government. 13

14 Three Conceptions of Democracy BDO outline (43-6) three conceptions of democracy, each of which connects the democratic ideal to a different ideological framework: 1. Liberal Democracy 2. Social Democracy 3. People s Democracy Liberal Democracy The view of democracy that characterizes most Western democracies. Rule by the people (and, usually, for the people), but majority rule must be limited. Strong protection for individual and minority rights (e.g., through constitutional provisions for judicial review); negative freedom 14

15 Social Democracy A common understanding of democracy in Europe, especially Scandinavia. (Also Canada?) Protection of individual and minority rights is supplemented by a concern for socio-economic equality; positive freedom. Redistribution of wealth, state financing of election campaigns, public control/regulation of industry and natural resources. People s Democracy Formerly the official view of democracy in the Soviet Bloc, still the official view of the People s Republic of China, Cuba, and North Korea (sort of). Rule for (but not necessarily by) the people, specifically the working class, the proletariat. Dictatorship of the proletariat suppresses the influence of capitalists and the bourgeoisie, preparing the way for a withering away of the state. 15

16 Democracy Today As we shall see later on, each of these conceptions of democracy can be seen as under threat in the globalized world. Also, while it is true that most ideologies supposedly support democracy, there remains the question of democracy for whom? and also the interaction between democracy and nationalism in the contemporary world. Democracy as a Global Issue Why care about democracy in a globalized world? Democracies are generally less likely to go to war with one another. (Cf. Kant s requirement for publicity) But at the same time, democratic states may be slow or reluctant to act in aid of a just cause. (e.g., the rise of Hitler)... 16

17 Democracy as a Global Issue II On balance, though, the spread of democracy is (almost unarguably) a good thing Yet this may require peace-building and other interventions possibly organized by transnational bodies like the United Nations that affluent democracies have sometimes been reluctant to support. Democratization could be helped by reform of UN institutions (e.g. the Security Council), but it is also in the interests of transnational corporations to cooperate in this process 17