HANDOUT 7 THE ETRUSCANS; THE ROMAN REPUBLIC Robert L. Cleve, Ph.D.

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1 HANDOUT 7 THE ETRUSCANS; THE ROMAN REPUBLIC Robert L. Cleve, Ph.D. THE ORIGINS OF ROME Tiber River: River adjacent to Rome; second largest (after the Po) in Italy. Pax Romana: The peace of Rome ; specifically, the period of the Roman Empire at its height during the first and second centuries C.E. Apennines: The mountain range of central Italy. Etruscans: A non Indo-European people of northwestern Italy; the first native civilization of Italy. Dionysius of Halicarnassus: Greek historian who believed that the Etruscans were of native origin. Villanovan: Early iron-age culture of northern Italy. Herodotus: Greek historian who believed that the Etruscans originated in the East and migrated to Italy. Campania: A rich agricultural region in southwestern Italy. Pompeii: City on the Bay of Naples covered with volcanic ash in 79 C.E by an eruption of Mount Vesusius. Corsica: Island off the northwestern coast of Italy. Carthage: Phoenician city in North Africa, near modern Tunis. Aeneid: The epic poem of the Roman hero Aeneas by Virgil. Aeneas: Trojan prince and mythical founder of the Roman people. Anchises: Father of Aeneas. Venus = Aphrodite: Goddess of love; mother of Aeneas; thus also called Venus Genitrix, mother of the Roman state. Julus = Asconius: Son of Aeneas. Dido: Queen and founder of Carthage. Alba Longa: City founded by Julus. Numitor: King of Alba Longa; direct descendant of Aeneas. Amulius: Younger brother of King Numitor and usurper of the throne. Rhea Silvia: Daughter of Numitor. Vestal Virgin: Priestess of Vesta, the goddess of the hearth. Mars: Roman god of war. Romulus and Remus: The twin sons of Rhea Silvia by Mars. Palatine: One of the seven hills of Rome.

2 Sabines: A people of central Italy closely related to the Romans. Quirinus: Romulus name as a god. Tarquinius Superbus: Tarquin the Proud, last king of Rome. Esquiline: One of the seven hills of Rome. Capitoline: One of the seven hills of Rome. Forum: Central square or plaza; market place. pater familias: The family patriarch; lit. father of the family. comitia curiata: The oldest Roman assembly; composed of thirty curiae or wards. Patricians: Aristocratic class of Rome. gens: Clan; group of related families. plebs = plebeians: The lower class of Rome; the common people. Sextus Tarquinius: Son of Tarquinius Superbus. Collatinus, Brutus: Leaders of the revolt against the king; the first two consuls of Rome. Lucretia: The virtuous wife of Collatinus THE ROMAN REPUBLIC Royal Period: The period of Roman history from the foundation (753 B.C.E., according to legend) to 509 B.C.E., when Rome was ruled by kings. Roman Republic: The period of Roman history between B.C.E., when the Roman government was a republic. Roman Empire: Two meanings l. The territory of the Roman state outside of Italy. 2. The period of Roman history between 27 B.C.E. 476 C.E., when Rome was governed by an emperor. imperator: Emperor ; originally the title of a general in the Roman army, but later come to be the title of the monarch. mos majorum: The customs of our ancestors. Senate: Advisory body of ex-magistrates and one of the three branches of the Roman government. Magistrate: An elected official of Rome; the magistrates made up the administrative branch of the Roman government. provincia: The province, or assignment of a magistrate, especially a consul; later used to designate the territory administered by a governor. Senatus Consultum Ultimum (SCU): The Final Decree of the Senate, equivalent to a declaration of martial law.

3 popularis: the popular political faction or party in republican Rome; their power base was the assembly. optimates: The best, the name of the conservative faction in republican Rome; their power base was the senate. Cicero: Famous Roman politician and writer, B.C.E. Catiline conspiracy: The attempt by Catiline in 63 B.C.E. to overthrow the Roman government. populus Romanus: The Roman people. imperium: Executive power. cursus honorum: A political career; lit. course of honor. veto: A negative prohibition; lit. I forbid. dictator: Dictator, a special Roman magistrate who welded supreme, but temporary, power in times of crisis. Tribune: (tribunus) A magistrate of the plebs; protector and spokesman for the people. quaestor: Lowest ranking magistrate of the state; assistant to a consul or praetor. aedile: Magistrate; administered the public buildings, streets, games, etc. Praetor: Second highest ranking magistrate; administered the court system and served as governor of minor provinces, Consul: Highest public office; commander-in-chief, etc.; there were two consuls with equal power. Censor: Magistrate who took the census, etc.; there were two censors elected every five years for an eighteen month term. comitia centuriata: A Roman assembly made up of 193 centuriae, or centuries; a majority of these voting units were assigned to the wealthiest classes.. comitia tributa: Most important Roman assembly, composed of thirty five tribes; in this assembly all citizens were equal, but it was weighted in favor of the rural tribes which were more conservative. Senatus Populusque Romanus: (SPQR) the Senate and the People of Rome. equites: the highest property class; they became a separate order, the business class of the late Republic and Empire.. proletarii: the lowest property class; those who owned no property at all. jugerum: Roman measure of land, about 2/3 acre. centuria: century; company of one hundred soldiers.

4 THE ROMAN REPUBLIC Patricians: The aristocratic order, or class, of ancient Rome. plebs: Plebeians, the common people, Roman citizens who were not patricians. Secession of the plebs: The withdrawal of the plebs from the state in support of their demands for political rights. Orders (ordo): The social classes of Rome; originally there were only two, patricians and the plebeians, but later the equites later became a recognized order. Twelve Tables: The first written Roman law code, c. 450 B.C.E. nobilities = Nobility: The new unofficial upper class consisting of the patricians plus the leading plebeian families; including all those families who could trace their ancestry back to at least one consul. This was not an official order. sine suffragio: Citizenship without franchise, i.e. without the right to vote and hold office in Rome. socii = Allies: Those Italians not yet granted citizenship. Pyrrhus: King of Epirus who led a Greek army into southern Italy to aid the Greeks there against Roman expansion. Heraclea: Site of the Pyrrhic victory of Pyrrhus over Rome. Punic Wars: The series of three wars ( , , B.C.E.) between Rome and Carthage. The first two of these wars decided who would be supreme in the western Mediterranean. Hannibal: Carthaginian general who invaded and ravished Italy for some fifteen years during the Second Punic War. Defensive Imperialism: modern term often applied to the Roman rationalization of its expansion after the Second Punic War. Pergamum: Kingdom in Asia Minor that was willed to Rome in 133 B.C.E. by its king. provincia = Province: governor. equites: A territory outside of Italy ruled by a Roman Middle class Roman citizens; they carried on most of the commercial activities of Rome. latifundia: Large estates in Italy owned by senators or rich equites. proletarii Landless, unemployed Roman citizens; the lowest property class. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus: Brothers who attempted land reforms intended to settle the proletarii on land confiscated from the rich landowners. Gaius Marius: Transformed Roman army from a conscript citizen militia into a professional military organization made up of volunteers. Jugurtha: African king who fought a war against Rome, B.C. Cohart: New regiment or tactical unit of Marius professional army.

5 popularis: The popular political faction of Rome, based on the assembly. optimates: The best; the conservative, aristocratic political faction, based in the senate. Social War: The war between Rome and its Italian allies (socii). Lucius Cornelius Sulla: general who led his army on Rome and made himself dictator. First Triumvirate: a three-man commission or board; specifically, the political alliance, formed in 63 B.C.E., between Pompey, Caesar and Crassus to dominate the Roman state. Gnaius Pompey: General and triumvir; later defeated by Caesar. Marcus Crassus: Triumvir and richest man in Rome; killed in war against Parthia. Gaius Julius Caesar: Triumvir; later made himself dictator for life; assassinated in 44 B.C.E. Marcus Cicero: Roman politician and perhaps the most famous Latin writer; consul in 63 B.C.E. during the Catiline conspiracy.

6 OUTLINE OF ROMAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY I MONARCHY (traditional dates, B.C.E.) A. KING. Possessed absolute imperium (executive, military and judicial power) and functioned as the chief priest of the state religion. B. SENATE. Advisory council of elders. Elected new king and gave advice when requested. Originally it was probably composed of the heads of families (paterfamilias) of the leading clans (gens). C. ASSEMBLIES. (1) Comitia Curiata. Earliest Roman assembly. Made up of ten curiae (wards) from each tribe. Conferred imperium upon the new king and approved laws. (2) Comitia Centuriata. Originated during Late Monarchy, but reached full development during the early Republic (see below). Ratified declarations of war and peace. II. REPUBLIC (circa B.C.E.) A. SENATE. Now composed of all ex-magistrates. Although legally an advisory body to the magistrates, its power and prestige gradually increased until it became, in effect, the supervisory organ of the state: (1) Assigned duties, or provincia, of the magistrates. (2) Approved legislative proposals before submission to assembly. (3) Authorized the size of armies through draft quotas. (4) Supervised the treasury, rate of taxation and coinage. (5) Conducted foreign policy. (6) After the Gracchi period, issued Senatus Consultum Ultimum (SCU), a form of martial law that suspended civil rights and empowered the consuls to take extraordinary action against enemies of the state. B. MAGISTRATES. Administered the government. They were elected by the Roman people. (1) CONSULS. The two consuls were the supreme civil and military magistrates of the Roman state. Elected annually. Since they had equal imperium, they could veto each other as well as all other magistrates, except the tribunes or a dictator.

7 (2) PRAETORS. Administered justice and could also be appointed governors of minor provinces by the Senate after their terms of office. (3) AEDILES. Served as assistants to consuls. Administered public buildings and streets. Provided public games at their own expense. (4) QUAESTORS. Supervised the archives and treasury. Served as assistants to the consuls, military tribunes and provincial governors. (5) TRIBUNES. Ten tribunes were elected annually by the plebs to protect them from the abuse of the government. Their persons were sacrosanct and they had right of veto over all actions of all government officials and institutions except a dictator. Could call sessions and preside over of the assembly. (6) CENSORS. Two were elected each five years for an 18-month term. They drew up an official list of citizens (census) and of senators. Controlled public morals and supervised public contracts. (7) DICTATOR. Nominated by a consul and confirmed by the Senate, he held absolute imperium. His task was to handle a state crisis, normally a foreign invasion. Term lasted 6 months or until the end of the crisis, whichever came first. C. ASSEMBLY (COMITIA). The sovereignty of the Roman state was vested in the Roman people and expressed through the assembly of the people. However, the people did not vote directly, but by political units or wards. The people were assembled in different configurations for different purposes and there were thus several different assemblies (or ways of organizing the assembly). (1) Comitia curiata. Only function during the Republic was to confer imperium on consuls and praetors. (2) Comitia centuriata. For the voting purposes in this assembly, the citizen body was divided into 5 property classes plus the equites, craftsmen and proletarii (landless unemployed), based on wealth, and assigned to 193 centuria (centuries) as follows: equites, 18; first class, 80; second, third and fourth classes, 20 each; fifth class, 80; craftsmen, 4; and proletarii (not numerous in the early Republic, but the most numerous group of all in the late Republic), 1. Since the voting was by century, this assembly was heavily biased toward wealth and the equites plus 79 centuries of the first class formed a majority and could carry any vote. This assembly declared war and peace and elected consuls, praetors and censors. (3) Comitia tributa. For this assembly, the citizens were divided into 35 tribes in which wealth played no significant part. However, since there were only three urban tribes, as the city s population grew, the assembly became biased in favor of the more conservative rural citizens. This Assembly elected aediles and quaestors and passed legislation.

8 (4) Concilium plebis. Since this assembly was composed of only plebs, it was not really an assembly of the state but only of the plebeian class (order). This assembly spearheaded the plebeian cause during the struggle of the orders, but during the late Republic it met only to elect tribunes. While it had the authority to pass binding legislation, most laws were usually submitted to the comitia tributa, which represented all the people. III. EMPIRE (after 27 B.C.E.). During the early empire the institutions and offices above continued to function, but all real power was vested in the Princeps, or Imperator (emperor), who held no specific office but was vested with imperium maius (supreme power) and tribunicia potestas (power of the tribune), as well as supreme religious powers and auctoritas or authority.