2 Ideology and the nature of the state

Transcription

1 2 Ideology and the natue of the state Timeline Key questions 1914 Jun Red Week Aug Fasci di Azione Rivoluzionaia set up Nov founding of Il Popolo d Italia What ole did ideology play in Mussolini s ise to powe? To what extent was Mussolini a fascist? What was the natue of Italy s fascist state? 1915 May Radiant Days of May 1917 Nov Manifesto to the Nation published 1918 Jul Mussolini fomally enounces socialism 1919 Ma fomation of Fascio di Combattimento Oveview in Milan 18 Jun Fascist Pogamme published Nov fist use of popotional epesentation in elections; no fascists elected 1921 May Giolitti foms electoal bloc with fascists; Mussolini and 34 othe fascists elected Oct fomation of National Fascist Paty 1922 Sep Mussolini s speech in Udine Oct Mach on Rome; Mussolini becomes pime ministe 1923 Dec Chigi Palace Pact 1925 Manifesto of Fascist Intellectuals published; Vidoni Palace Pact 1926 Jul Ministy of Copoations established Oct Tuati eplaces Fainacci as paty secetay; Rocco s Law 1927 Ap Chate of Labou intoduced 1928 May new electoal law intoduced 1930 Ma National Council of Copoations established 1933 The Doctine of Fascism published 1938 Chambe of Fasci and Copoations eplaces Chambe of Deputies Many of the (often contadictoy) ideas that eventually fomed fascist ideology in Italy had thei oigins in 19th-centuy thought. Mussolini s own political views coveed the entie political spectum, fom evolutionay socialism befoe 1914, to nationalism and then to fascism by In the ealy days of fascism, Mussolini placed much moe emphasis on action than on ideology. Fom 1919 to 1922, the moe adical elements of fascist pogammes and policies wee inceasingly modeated. Afte he became pime ministe in 1922, Mussolini continued to distance himself fom ealy fascism. Fom 1926 onwads, the moe adical membes of the PNF wee puged, and the paty came inceasingly unde Mussolini s pesonal contol. Even the ceation of the copoate state although appaently a concession to paty adicals was caied out in a way that emphasised the powe of the Italian state and of employes ove employees. Duing the 1930s, Mussolini made effots to issue cleae statements of fascist ideology. Howeve, by this point, Italy had become a pesonal athe than a paty dictatoship. What ole did ideology play in Mussolini s ise to powe? The question of fascist ideology, and the ole it played in Mussolini s ise to powe, is somewhat confused. This is fistly because thee is no clea o consistent ideology connected to Mussolini s fascist movement, and secondly because Mussolini stated on the left of the political spectum and eventually moved to the exteme ight. In fact, Mussolini once descibed fascism as action and mood, not doctine. As late as 1932, he wote that when he fomed the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919, fascism was not a doctine.

2 2 Ideology and the natue of the state SOURCE A Yet if anyone caes to ead ove the now cumbling minutes giving an account of the meetings at which the Italian Fasci di Combattimento wee founded, he will find not a doctine but a seies of pointes. Extact fom The Doctine of Fascism Giovanni Gentile and Benito Mussolini. p. 23. Was fascism an ideology? Many histoians ague that thee is no coheent and unified ideological oot fo fascism, in the way that thee is fo Maxism, fo example (see pages of the cousebook). Mussolini did not make a conceted effot to define the basic beliefs of his movement until afte he became pime ministe. In fact, it was not until 1925 that Mussolini began to daw up a clea statement of fascist doctine. Unde the leadeship of the philosophe Giovanni Gentile, ove 200 intellectuals met in Bologna and put togethe the Manifesto of Fascist Intellectuals. Howeve, this attempt to bing togethe the divese and often contadictoy ideas of fascism was not paticulaly effective. A moe detemined effot came in 1932, ten yeas afte Mussolini became pime ministe of Italy, when Gentile (with some help fom Mussolini) wote a lengthy enty on fascism fo the Enciclopedia Italiana, of which he was edito. The fist pat of this was published sepaately as The Doctine of Fascism, unde Mussolini s name. Howeve, this was as much a statement of what fascism was against (essentially libealism, socialism, democacy and pacifism) as about what it stood fo (action, the nation, authoity and the state). In the section entitled Political and Social Doctine of Fascism, Gentile explained that fascism was anti-communist, anti-socialist, and stongly opposed to the economic conception of histoy and the centality of class wa both of which ae fundamental to Maxist and communist ideology. He went on to explain that fascism was also opposed to democacy. The text stessed the authoitaian aspect of fascism: The foundation of fascism is the conception of the State. Fascism conceives of the State as an absolute. Giovanni Gentile ( ) Known as the philosophe of fascism, Gentile s philosophy of actual idealism coesponded to the fascist liking fo action. Gentile became ministe of public education unde Mussolini in He was also an impotant membe of the Fascist Gand Council, and emained a loyal suppote of Mussolini afte the foundation of the Salò Republic in He was killed the following yea by anti-fascist patisans. 19 SOURCE B Fascism [is] the pecise negation of that doctine which fomed the basis of the so-called Scientific o Maxian Socialism. Afte Socialism, Fascism attacks the whole complex of democatic ideologies Fascism denies that the majoity, though the mee fact of being a majoity, can ule human societies; it denies that this majoity can goven by means of a peiodical consultation Fascism is definitely and absolutely opposed to the doctines of libealism, both in the political and economic sphee. Extacts fom The Doctine of Fascism Giovanni Gentile and Benito Mussolini. pp

3 Mussolini and Italy Yet Mussolini s fascism seved as the model fo many othe fascist paties that emeged elsewhee in Euope duing the 1920s and 1930s. In his ealy days, Adolf Hitle was an admie of Mussolini. In 1934, Mussolini even set up a Fascist Intenational, which funded emeging fascist paties. While the main factos in Mussolini s ise wee undoubtedly the instability in Italy, the violence of the fascist action squads and the suppoting ole of the élites, fascist aims and ponouncements also played a pat. Mussolini s ealy political views It was duing the wave of socialist militancy fom 1919 to 1922 that the man who was to become the fascist pime ministe of Italy founded his political movement. Yet, at fist, Mussolini was involved with the Socialist Paty. He fequently attacked the Roman Catholic Chuch and epeatedly called fo a deepening of the class stuggle and violent evolution. At this time, Mussolini opposed militaism and Italian impeialism, suppoting intenational solidaity instead. In 1911, duing violent demonstations against the Italian wa on Libya, he was impisoned fo his pat in attempting to povoke an insuection in potest against the wa. On his elease in 1912, he became edito of the Socialist Paty s newspape Avanti! in Milan. His aticles advocated evolutionay violence against the libeal state. He also helped expel pooyalists and efomists fom the Socialist Paty. Howeve, Mussolini was not a Maxist, and his socialism was lagely anti-cleical epublicanism. Syndicalism and anachism (see page 10) wee fa less impotant aspects of his ideology. 20 SOURCE C Comments by Angelica Balabanoff, a Maxist who had an affai with Mussolini, and who had some influence on his ideas in the ealy yeas. I soon saw that he [Mussolini] knew little of histoy, of economics o of Socialist theoy Mussolini s adicalism and anti-cleicalism wee moe a eflection of his ealy envionment and his own ebellious egoism than the poduct of undestanding and conviction. Quoted in Hite, J. and Hinton, C Fascist Italy. London, UK. Hodde Education. p. 39. The outbeak of the Fist Wold Wa soon led Mussolini to make a damatic political U-tun the fist of many. The Socialist Paty (like the Russian Bolsheviks) stuck to the pinciples of evolutionay intenationalism and theefoe condemned the wa as an inte-impeialist conflict, uging the woking class and the Italian govenment to emain neutal. Yet, in August, many of Mussolini s fiends in epublican and syndicalist goups suppoted Italy s enty on the Fanco-Bitish side. They set up the Fascio Rivoluzionaio di Azione Intenazionalista (Revolutionay Goup of Intenational Action). Mussolini soon dopped the idea of class stuggle and apidly moved towads an exteme nationalist position, advocating Italian involvement in the wa.

4 2 Ideology and the natue of the state In Novembe 1914, Mussolini was sacked as edito of Avanti! and set up his own newspape, Il Popolo d Italia ( The People of Italy ) to campaign in favou of wa. The pape was financed by wealthy Italian companies such as Fiat (which expected to gain lucative wa contacts), as well as by the Fench govenment. Late, the pape was patly financed by Bitain and Tsaist Russia. Shotly afte the establishment of Il Popolo, Mussolini was expelled fom the Socialist Paty. Despite advocating intevention in the wa, Mussolini did not voluntee fo the amy. He was conscipted in Septembe 1915, and invalided out of the amy in 1917, afte an accident duing a taining execise. He then esumed his ole as edito of Il Popolo, blaming the libeal govenment fo militay incompetence and calling fo a dictato to take chage of the wa effot. His Manifesto to the Nation, published in Novembe 1917 afte the defeat at Capoetto (see page 7), called fo a national union to wok fo victoy in the wa. The following month, some senatos and deputies set up a Fascio Palamentae di Difesa Nazionale (Paliamentay Goup of National Defence). This coalition of nationalists, ight-wing libeals and epublican inteventionists set up vaious local fasci to take tough action against the enemy within fo example, neutalists and socialist evolutionaies. Although Mussolini still advocated social efom, he was apidly moving away fom a socialist position and close to the emeging nationalist movement. In July 1918, he fomally enounced socialism. Fascist beliefs in 1919 Having aleady moved fom his pe-wa opposition to nationalism and impeialism to a po-wa expansionist position afte 1915, Mussolini s political ideology continued to shift. As seen in Unit 1, in Mach 1919 Mussolini set up a Fascio di Combattimento in Milan. The founde membes of this goup late became known as the Fascists of the Fist Hou. Soon, ove 70 such fasci had been established in nothen and cental Italy. Thei Fascist Pogamme, published in June, was an incoheent mixtue of left-wing and ight-wing policies. It was designed to hold these vey diffeent goups togethe, and to appeal to as wide an audience as possible. Fascists of the Fist Hou As the meeting took place in a hall on Piazza San Sepolco, these ealy fascists wee also known as the sansepolcista. Histoians disagee about the actual numbes who attended this foundation meeting. In 1923, Mussolini stated thee wee only SOURCE D 1 A new national Assembly [will be set up] 2 Poclamation of the Italian Republic 4 Abolition of all titles of nobility 9 Suppession of joint stock companies Suppession of all speculation by banks and stock exchanges. 10 Contol and taxation of pivate wealth. Confiscation of unpoductive income 12 Reoganisation of poduction on a co-opeative basis and diect paticipation of the wokes in the pofits. Extacts fom the 1919 Fascist Pogamme. Quoted in Robson, M Italy: Libealism and Fascism London, UK. Hodde & Stoughton. p. 48.

5 Mussolini and Italy Accoding to histoian Alexande De Gand, Mussolini s fascism was a mixtue of five, often contadictoy, ideas and beliefs: 1 National syndicalism At fist epublican, vaguely socialist and anti-cleical. 2 Technocatic fascism Accepting and wholeheatedly embacing the industial evolution and modenism (these included the futuists). 3 Rual fascism Anti-uban, anti-moden and anti-industial. 4 Consevative fascism Essentially non-ideological and pagmatic, favouing tadition, monachy and the Catholic Chuch. 5 Nationalist fascism The most coheent element, favouing an authoitaian political system and an aggessive foeign policy in ode to achieve teitoial expansion. Fact In the 1919 elections, the esults fo the fascist candidates and fo Mussolini himself (his fascist list in Milan got only 1.7% of the vote) wee so poo that the socialists in Milan oganised a fake funeal fo Mussolini and his fascist movement. As Mussolini s political ambitions gew afte 1919, the moe adical aspects of the Fascist Pogamme began to be dopped in favou of ight-wing elements. This pocess began in eanest afte the fascists poo pefomance in the 1919 elections. By 1921, Mussolini had cut the numbe of fascist enemies down to the socialists and the alleged theat of imminent communist evolution. Peviously, the list of fascism s enemies had included capitalism and big business, the monachy and the Catholic Chuch. In fact, one way in which ideology played a significant pat in Mussolini s ise was the way he clevely both exaggeated and exploited the people s fea of those who suppoted Maxist and communist ideologies. 22 Questions How do you account fo the diffeences between the two statements of fascist pogammes and policies in Souce D (on page 21) and Souce E opposite? What impact do you think Souce E might have had on the consevative élites and classes? SOURCE F SOURCE E The theat of Bolshevism was exploited cunningly by Mussolini and it is difficult to oveestimate its impotance in binging Fascism to powe. Yet in tuth, the theat in Italy was almost entiely illusoy. No maste plan of evolution existed; peasants and wokes acted without pemeditation and on a local basis only By the last quate of 1921, the wost of the post-wa depession was past; so was the wost of poletaian unest. By the time, a yea late, that Mussolini aived in office to save Italy fom Bolshevism, the theat, if it eve existed, was ove. Ou pogamme is simple: we wish to goven Italy. They ask us fo pogammes, but thee ae aleady too many. It is not pogammes that ae wanting fo the salvation of Italy, but men and will-powe Ou [Italy s] political class is deficient. The cisis of the Libeal State has poved it We must have a state which will simply say: The State does not epesent a paty, it epesents the nation as a whole, it includes all, is ove all, potects all. This is the State which must aise fom the Italy of Vittoio Veneto a state which does not fall unde the powe of the Socialists we want to emove fom the state all its economic attibutes. Extacts fom a speech made by Mussolini in Udine in Septembe Quoted in Robson, M Italy: Libealism and Fascism London, UK. Hodde & Stoughton. pp Cassels, A Fascist Italy. London, UK. Routledge & Keegan Paul. pp

6 2 Ideology and the natue of the state Fascist ideology, Afte the May 1921 elections, in which Mussolini and 34 othe fascist deputies fom the ight wing of the movement wee elected, he became inceasingly concened with appeasing the consevative classes and contolling the as. In fact, Mussolini had been distancing himself fom the moe adical policies of ealy fascism since In Octobe 1921, he successfully pushed fo the establishment of a moe disciplined political paty the National Fascist Paty (PNF). This new paty had a clea ight-wing pogamme. It appealed to Mussolini s capitalist backes but it angeed the as, who wanted to destoy the existing political system, not paticipate in it. They became inceasingly violent a ceeping insuection, accoding to histoian Philip Mogan. The socialists geneal stike at the end of July 1922, which was intended to foce the libeal govenment to take action against fascist attacks, meely seved to fighten the consevatives and justify futhe violence fom the fascists. Squadismo Duing 1921, Mussolini s ideology was focused much moe on the cult of fascist violence which came to be known as squadismo than on political policies and pogammes. Afte the bloc with the libeals and the May elections of 1921, Mussolini began to play on the consevatives exaggeated fea of the socialists. In Novembe, in anothe shift away fom the adicalism of ealy fascism, Mussolini made a diect attempt to appease Catholics. The ealie leftwing and anti-cleical aspects of the 1919 pogamme wee dopped: now the PNF opposed divoce and suppoted the Popolai s demands fo bette teatment of peasants. 23 Fom 1921 onwads, Mussolini s speeches and aticles concentated on what fascism was against socialism and libealism athe than what it was fo. Howeve, Mussolini did stess fascism s commitment to stong govenment, patiotism and impeial expansion. Fascist violence inceased duing To what extent was Mussolini a fascist? Having looked at Mussolini s views and his movement s actions in the pevious pages, it should now be possible to assess to what extent Mussolini himself can be descibed as a fascist. To daw any conclusions, it is necessay to examine how histoians have attempted to define fascism, and to identify the movement s coe beliefs. In paticula, it is necessay to investigate what has been called geneic fascism and how Mussolini s views elate to such academic definitions. Geneic fascism In geneal tems, when consideing geneic fascism, many histoians such as Roge Giffin and Stanley Payne have isolated a coe set of aspects of fascist ideology, which identifies what fascists stood fo. At the heat of fascism lie at least fou key elements: a populist even evolutionay fom of ulta-nationalism a desie to destoy the existing political system a belief in a stong leade (the Fühepinzip, o leadeship pinciple ) a belief in the positive values of vitalism (action) and violence.

7 Mussolini and Italy Howeve, Roge Eatwell and othes have often found it easie to identify fascist ideology by isolating what they wee against, thus focusing on the negative and eactionay aspects of the movement. These include a ejection of the libeal ideas of the 18th-centuy Enlightenment, and 19th-centuy positivism, both of which had stessed ationalism, eason and pogess. Poto-fascism poto-fascism This ealy, incomplete fom of fascism, which began to emege befoe 1919, included elements of syndicalism found in the witings of philosophe Geoges Soel ( ). Howeve, fascists soon eplaced Soel s idea of a geneal stike fought by evolutionay unions (known as syndicats) with the big idea of a poweful, united nation. Thee was also the idea of vitalism, which stated that emotion and action wee supeio to eason. It was the latte aspect in paticula that led Mussolini and his followes to emphasise the need fo action and violent combat. 24 Activity Cay out futhe eseach on the histoical debates suounding poto-fascism and geneic fascism. Some histoians have descibed the peiod befoe the Fist Wold Wa as the incubatoy peiod of fascism. Initially, the poto-fascism that developed fom the late 19th centuy was opposed to the gowth of libeal (i.e. unesticted o fee maket ) capitalism, which tended to negatively affect smalle businesses and atisans. Paliamentay democacy, which often came in the wake of industial capitalism, was seen as a way fo the wealthy and fo the oganised labou movement to influence politics in a way that hamed the small man and the nation. Cetainly, it was fom these quates that Mussolini, and late Hitle, dew the majoity of thei active suppot and fomed thei mass movements. Many nationalists and small men wee moving towads a fom of eactionay ulta-nationalism. The nationalist and impeialist Italian Nationalist Association was paticulaly impotant in this shift. Dissatisfied nationalists and fightened consevatives longed to etun to a moe gloious Italian past (ecalling the empie of ancient Rome), and feaed the gowth of socialism and the theat of communist evolution. Such views wee widespead amongst the uppe and middle classes in Italy not just among the industial, financial and landowning élites, but also shopkeepes, small fames and cleical wokes. Many despised the weak libeal coalitions and wanted a stonge, moe authoitaian govenment to defend thei inteests. Fascist Blackshits fom a Fascio di Combattimento (battle goup)

8 2 Ideology and the natue of the state SOURCE G We allow ouselves the luxuy of being aistocats and democats; consevatives and pogessives; eactionaies and evolutionaies; legalitaians and illegalitaians, accoding to the cicumstances of the time. Mussolini, commenting on the content of fascist ideology in Quoted in Peace, R Fascism and Nazism. London, UK. Hodde & Stoughton. p. 7. Question What does Souce G eveal about the impotance of ideology in the Italian Fascist Paty? SOURCE H Bon in the womb of bougeois democacy, fascism in the eyes of the capitalists is a means of saving capitalism fom collapse. It is only fo the pupose of deceiving and disaming the wokes that social democacy denies the fascistisation of bougeois democatic counties and the counties of the fascist dictatoship. Extact fom the plenum on fascism of the Communist Intenational, Decembe Quoted in Giffin, R. (ed) Fascism: a Reade. Oxfod, UK. Oxfod Papebacks. p Activity Assess the value and limitations of Souce H as evidence of the ole played by fascist movements, and the easons fo fascist violence, in Italy duing the 1920s. 25 What was the natue of Italy s fascist state? When he became pime ministe in Octobe 1922, Mussolini almost immediately took steps towads the constuction of his fascist state. By 1924, Italy was on the way to becoming a fascist dictatoship. SOURCE I The Fascist conception of the State is all-embacing; outside of it no human o spiitual values can exist, much less have value. Thus undestood, Fascism is totalitaian, and the Fascist State a synthesis and a unit inclusive of all values intepets, develops, and potentiates the whole life of a people The Fascist State lays claim to ule in the economic field no less than in othes; it makes its action felt thoughout the length and beadth of the county by means of its copoate, social, and educational institutions, and all the political, economic, and spiitual foces of the nation, oganised in thei espective associations, ciculate within the State. Extacts fom the 1935 edition of The Doctine of Fascism. pp. 14 and 41.

9 Mussolini and Italy Souce I on page 25 makes extavagant claims as to the natue of the state that Mussolini attempted to establish afte Howeve, such claims wee often not an accuate eflection of eality. Nonetheless, by Decembe 1924, the cisis following the mude of Giacomo Matteotti (see page 36) led some moe militant fascists to pesent Mussolini with an ultimatum establish a fascist dictatoship, o they would eplace him with someone who would. Afte some hesitation, Mussolini ageed to declae himself dictato, but only on his own tems. He was detemined to enfoce a dictatoship that would be independent of the as. The authoitaian egime that Mussolini pesided ove between 1925 and 1945 was thus a pesonal athe than a Fascist Paty dictatoship. Mussolini and Catholic piests; as Mussolini s ule pogessed he won ove Chuch leades, lagely though the Latean Ageements of 1929 (see page 58) 26 The Fascist Paty In fact, Mussolini delibeately esticted the influence of the PNF by using membes of the taditional consevative élites to maintain law and ode. This included the police, the judicial system, the civil sevice and the amy. Mussolini made no seious attempt to fascistise the system of govenment by esticting appointments to leading fascists, as some of his followes wanted. Howeve, Mussolini did instigate a puge of the judiciay, and many judges wee sacked fo lack of loyalty o fo following an ovely independent line. Mussolini fequently intevened in legal cases, and impisonment without tial was

10 2 Ideology and the natue of the state common. The chief of police was anothe position filled by caee politicians athe than fascists. In the povinces, it was the pefects (the senio civil sevants who an the administation, suppessed subvesives and contolled the police) who appointed the podesta. The pefects had to be loyal to the govenment, but also to the local élites. Between 1922 and 1929, only 29 of the 86 new podesta appointed wee fascists. Most wee caee civil sevants. At fist, the as esisted these developments, especially in cental Italy. As late as 1927, local fascist leades wee able to insist on some powe shaing. By 1930, howeve, Mussolini claimed this conflict had been esolved in favou of the pefects. Disputes between pefects and local paty leades still boke out occasionally, though. Afte Fainacci s foced esignation in Octobe 1926 (ostensibly fo anothe outbust of squadisti violence, but eally because he had begun to push fo a second wave of fascist evolution), the pefects and the podesta set about stamping out squadismo. In Januay 1927, Mussolini issued instuctions that all Italians, including fascists, should offe the pefects total obedience. The taming of the PNF In 1926, the new paty secetay, Augusto Tuati, began a puge of moe militant fascists. At the same time, he opened membeship to people who meely wanted to futhe thei caee. In just one yea, paty membeship ose fom about 640,000 to just unde 940,000. Fo the fist time, fascist banches wee established in southen Italy. Most of these new membes came fom the same local élites that had peviously belonged to o suppoted the libeals. Soon thee wee vey few Fascists of the Fist Hou left in impotant positions. At the same time, ove 100,000 paty membes left many of them disgusted by what was happening to thei paty. These developments continued in the 1930s unde Tuati s successos, Giovanni Giuiati and Achille Staace. The PNF became a mass paty, with almost 5 million (mainly inactive) membes by Howeve, most wee white-colla employees, while the wokes and peasants (who had once made up 30% of the paty s membeship) dopped to a small minoity. The Fascist Paty thus inceasingly became a tame and loyal base of suppot fo Mussolini. At the same time, paty posts wee filled by appointment fom above, athe than though election by paty membes. This gadual weakening of the PNF was due in pat to intenal divisions and disunity, which had existed fom its foundation. Accoding to the histoian Richad Thulow, thee wee at least five diffeent factions within the paty. These included the militant as, who (like sections of the Stumabteilung in Nazi Gemany) wanted a second wave of fascist evolution to eplace state institutions with fascist ones, and the left fascists, who wanted to establish a copoativist, o national syndicalist, state. Opposed to these two factions wee the fascist evisionists, led by Dino Gandi, Massimo Rocca and Giuseppe Bottai, who wee pepaed to co-opeate and mege with the existing political system. Mussolini was able to play off these factions against each othe to enhance his own powe. At the same time, he manipulated diffeent sectos of state pesonnel to ensue that no one could challenge his authoity. Fact In 1927, only about 15% of the civil sevice wee said to be fascists: both the inteio ministe (Luigi Fedezoni) and the ministe of justice (Alfedo Rocco) wee consevative ex-nationalists. In the 1930s, civil sevants often poclaimed loyalty to the Fascist Paty meely to etain thei jobs. podesta The podesta wee the local mayos. Afte elected local councils wee abolished in 1926, the pefects whose powes wee geatly inceased appointed all the mayos in thei povince. They usually chose espectable landownes o ex-amy offices, athe than local fascists. Podesta eceived no payment, so needed to be financially independent. Augusto Tuati ( ) Tuati was an ex-syndicalist, an iedentist, a suppote of Italy s enty into the Fist Wold Wa, and a jounalist. He joined Mussolini s Fascio di Combattimento in 1920, and became the PNF boss of Bescia. He was National Paty secetay fom 1926 to His puge of paty membes affected both povincial and non-povincial banches. In 1927, fo example, 7000 of Rome s 31,000 membes wee puged. In his fist yea as paty secetay, Tuati expelled 30,000 membes, and by 1929, that numbe had isen to ove 50,000. Late, he opposed Italy s enty into the Second Wold Wa, and did not suppot Mussolini s Salò Republic. 27

11 Mussolini and Italy The copoate state Those fascists who believed that thei movement was a thid way between capitalism and communism favoued the ceation of a copoate state. Sometimes known as the copoative state, the aim of copoativism was to eplace the politics of taditional paliamentay democacy with that of copoations epesenting the nation s vaious economic sectos. These copoations, each with equal epesentation fo employes and employees, wee supposed to ovecome class conflict. By thus avoiding stikes and othe labou disputes, the copoate state would instead give pime consideation to the inteests of the nation. Although thee would be elements of inceased state contol, thee was no thought of eadicating pivate owneship. 28 Edmondo Rossoni ( ) Rossoni was initially a evolutionay syndicalist, who was impisoned fo his activities in He became a socialist and then a nationalist, joining Mussolini s PNF in Rossoni was the most pominent of the fascist labou leades and, as head of the Confedeation of Fascist Syndicates, he wanted genuine wokes epesentatives who would shae powe with employes. Afte his dismissal in 1928, he continued in fascist politics, seving as undesecetay to the pesident of the Fascist Gand Council fom 1932 to Late, he suppoted Dino Gandi s coup and voted against Mussolini in SOURCE J Fascism is theefoe opposed to Socialism to which unity within the State (which amalgamates classes into a single economic and ethical eality) is unknown, and which sees in histoy nothing but the class stuggle. Fascism is likewise opposed to tade unionism as a class weapon. But when bought within the obit of the State, Fascism ecognises the eal needs which gave ise to socialism and tade-unionism, giving them due weight in the guild o copoative system in which divegent inteests ae coodinated and hamonised in the unity of the State. Extact fom The Doctine of Fascism Giovanni Gentile and Benito Mussolini. p. 15. The fascist syndicates Duing thei ise to powe in the yeas , the fascists closed down the taditional labou movement tade unions in the aeas they contolled. They eplaced these unions with fascist-contolled syndicates, which wee still supposed to epesent wokes inteests. By 1922, a Confedeation of Fascist Syndicates had been set up, headed by Edmondo Rossoni, who wanted to ceate copoations that would foce industialists to make some concessions to wokes demands. These copoations would be established fo each industy, and made up of govenment epesentatives, employes oganisations and epesentatives fom the fascist syndicates. Howeve, this leftist fascist aspiation unlike thei attacks on the taditional tade unions was opposed by the Confindustia, the oganisation that epesented the main industialists in Italy. In Decembe 1923, when Mussolini had been pime ministe fo 14 months, the Chigi Palace Pact was made. In this ageement, the industialists pomised to co-opeate with the Confedeation of Fascist Syndicates, but they insisted on maintaining thei own independent oganisations. Despite this, many employes wee not pepaed to make any significant concessions to wokes, and this povoked a seies of stikes in The esulting Vidoni Palace Pact confimed that the Confindustia and the Confedeation of

12 2 Ideology and the natue of the state Fascist Syndicates wee the only oganisations allowed to epesent employes and employees espectively. It was also made clea that wokes wee not to challenge the authoity of employes and manages. All wokes factoy councils wee closed down and non-fascist tade unions wee abolished. In 1926, Alfedo Rocco s law made all stikes illegal even those by fascist syndicates and declaed that industial disputes must be settled in special labou couts. The law also stated that thee could only be one oganisation (a fascist syndicate) of wokes and employes in each banch of industy, and identified seven main aeas of economic activity. The copoations Following these developments, in July 1926 Mussolini established a Ministy of Copoations, with himself as the ministe. Each copoation was made up of epesentatives of employes and wokes of the same economic o industial secto (e.g. mining), with the state s epesentatives acting as efeees and final adjudicatos. In pactice, this new ministy was un by the unde-secetay, Giuseppe Bottai, who poduced the Chate of Labou (witten mainly by Rocco) in Apil This document guaanteed fai judgement of labou disputes and pomised to cay out social efoms such as impoved health cae and accident insuance schemes (although none of these measues had the foce of law). In May 1927, Mussolini deliveed a speech in which he claimed that a copoate state had been established. He even pomised that the copoations would elect half the membes of the next Chambe of Deputies. In May the following yea, a new electoal law was passed a compomise between paty and syndicalist views. It allowed fo 1000 names to be ecommended to the Fascist Gand Council, which would select 400 as candidates fo the Mach 1929 election. As Mussolini feaed, the copoations weakened the fascist syndicates. In 1928, Rossoni was dismissed and the Confedeation of Fascist Syndicates was abolished. In 1929, Bottai took ove as ministe of copoations and, in Mach 1930, he set up the National Council of Copoations (NCC), which epesented the seven lagest copoations. In 1932, Mussolini esumed contol of the Ministy of Copoations, and the numbe of copoations slowly gew, eaching 22 by Despite all the eoganisation, Mussolini usually made the impotant decisions himself. In paticula, most of the decisions on policies to deal with the effects of the Geat Depession (see page 40) had nothing to do with the copoations including the decision to cut wages. Futhemoe, as most tade unionists expeienced in industial negotiations and disputes wee socialists o communists (and wee theefoe eithe dead, in pison o in exile), the employes had a geate influence in the copoations. Many wee tame membes of the fascist syndicates, o even middle-class caeeists. In addition, the employes wee nealy always suppoted by the thee govenment-appointed Fascist Paty membes, who wee supposed to emain neutal. In 1938, in a belated attempt to give moe cedibility to the copoate state, Mussolini decided to abolish the Chambe of Deputies and to put in its place the Chambe of Fasci and Copoations. Mussolini hoped to establish a new fom of politics, in which people wee given a voice accoding to thei economic function o occupation, athe than thei teitoial location. In eality, howeve, this had little substance o powe, being dominated by fascists appointed fom above. Giuseppe Bottai ( ) Bottai met Mussolini in 1919 and helped set up a fascio in Rome, whee he acted as edito of Mussolini s pape, Il Popolo d Italia. He took pat in the Mach on Rome, and his unit was esponsible fo the deaths of seveal anti-fascists. Fom 1926 to 1929, Bottai was deputy secetay of copoations. Fom 1936 to 1943, he seved as ministe fo education and mayo of Rome. He was esponsible fo implementing seveal anti-democatic and anti-semitic measues, including emoving all Jewish students and teaches fom schools and univesities. In 1943, Bottai sided with Gandi in the coup against Mussolini. Fact In the Mach 1929 election, electos could only vote yes o no to the Gand Council s list. Of the oiginal 1000 names ecommended by syndicates, employes associations, ex-sevicemen and a few othe goups, the employes got 125 of thei nominees elected, while the wokes syndicates only managed 89. Mussolini employed his usual methods of pesuasion, esulting in a 90% tunout, with 98.3% voting in favou of the list pesented to them. One of the few politicians to speak out against the new electoal law was Giolitti. 29

13 Mussolini and Italy Histoical debate Histoians ae divided ove the natue of Italian fascism and its ideology. One boad intepetation has tended to examine fascist ideology and its copoate state in a seious way, and lagely on its own tems. Anothe has been much moe sceptical, consideing its ideology to be incoheent and its declaed achievements mainly unfounded popaganda claims. Since the woks of histoians Renzo De Felice and Emilio Gentile, a thid evisionist stand has etuned to the idea of fascist ideology and its stated puposes as elatively coheent and wothy of seious study. Was Mussolini an all-poweful dictato? Despite Mussolini s claims, and despite having established contol ove the PNF, the eality was that he had to shae powe with the taditional goups that had wielded powe in Italy long befoe These included the monachy, the Catholic Chuch, the civil sevice and the couts, and the industial and financial élites and thei oganisations. Fo example, afte othe fascist leades began moving against Mussolini, it was the king who eventually odeed his aest, on 25 July SOURCE K The existence of autonomous, consevative inteests monachy, industy, agai, amed foces and Chuch was thus integal to Mussolini s egime as it enteed the 1930s. Thei continued influence made the egime, in its essential chaacte, less pofoundly fascist and less totalitaian in scope than it claimed to be and than outwad appeaances suggested. Blinkhon, M Mussolini and Fascist Italy. London, UK. Routledge. p SOURCE L Mussolini gave the impession of being all-poweful, but he could not ule alone, and the Fascist Paty as such was little help to him in unning the county. The civil sevice, the couts, the amed foces and the police emained in the hands of caee officials whose commitment to Fascism was usually nominal. Tannenbaum, E Fascism in Italy. London, UK. Allen Lane. p. 93. Theoy of knowledge Histoy and popaganda Is it possible to examine Italian fascist ideology and the natue of Mussolini s state with any degee of cetainty? O does the popaganda that suounded Mussolini s statements and policies put such a spin on these issues that it is almost impossible fo histoians and students of histoy to aive at any accuate and objective judgements? SOURCE M The new system was a pesonal dictatoship unde Mussolini, yet still legally a monachy The govenment uled by decee Local elections wee eliminated; all mayos wee now appointed by decee. Yet the basic legal and administative appaatus of the Italian govenment emained intact. Thee was no Fascist evolution, save at the top. Payne, S A Histoy of Fascism, London, UK. UCL Pess. pp

14 2 Ideology and the natue of the state End of unit activities 1 Cay out futhe eseach on the thinkes and ideas that contibuted to the development of fascism. Then poduce a poste to summaise this infomation. 2 Daw up a chat to show the extent to which Mussolini s fascist ideology seemed to offe: a new fom of society a new economic and social stuctue new values. 3 Afte 1924, Mussolini made inceasing effots to educe the influence of the moe adical sections of his paty. List the ways in which he did this, and the possible easons fo his actions. Discussion point Was thee any coheent ideology behind Italian fascism and Mussolini s fascist state? Divide the class into two goups. One goup should pepae a pesentation that agues that thee was a coheent fascist ideology. The othe goup should ague that thee was no clea o consistent ideological famewok. Afte the pesentation, take a vote on which agument was the most convincing. 4 Find out moe about the vaious steps in the ceation of the copoate state in Italy fom 1926 to Then wite a few paagaphs to explain why the moe adical sections of the PNF, such as Edmondo Rossoni, wee disappointed by these developments. 31