COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ANTI-GRAFT INSTITUTIONS IN SINGAPORE AND NIGERIA. Adamu Hamma Daura

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1 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ANTI-GRAFT INSTITUTIONS IN SINGAPORE AND NIGERIA Adamu Hamma Daura 1 abatchadaura@gmail.com Babagana Lawan Abba 1 Abstract Corruption has been a serious problem over a long period of time in Singapore and Nigeria mostly attributed to many reasons including inadequacies of salaries of the public personnel among others. With a clear observation that these personnel were underpaid and exposed to every temptation that was offered by the combination of a weak native organisation, extraordinary opportunities in trade, and almost complete absence of checks from appropriate authorities. Corruption became endemic after independence because of the disastrous inflationary budgets that eroded civil service salaries to the point where people simply could not live on them and where financial accountability virtually collapsed because of administrative deterioration. The main objective of the study is to compare the operations of anti-graft institutions in Singapore and Nigeria. However, with the aid of Secondary source of relevant data for the study and the findings revealed that the following factors are considered as some of the major causes of corruption in both countries: opportunities (which depended on the extent of involvement of civil servants in the administration or control of lucrative activities), salaries and policing (i.e., the probability of detection and punishment) between the two countries. It is therefore concluded that corruption seems to depend not on any one of the three factors identified, but rather on the balance between them, Political will and effective anti-graft agency are present in Singapore than Nigeria as well as the proliferation of such agencies in Nigeria than Singapore on the other hand. It is therefore recommended that with few opportunities, good salaries, and effective policing, corruption will be minimal. Keywords: Comparative study, Corruption, Anti-graft institution Introduction Corruption is a global issue, but it varies in intensity, sophistication and forms from country to country. The deduction or inference from extant literature, public commentaries, analyses, media (print and broadcast) 1 Department of Public Administration, University of Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria. Sahel Analyst: ISSN Page 123

2 African Journal of Management (Vol.2, No.3, 2017), Business Admin. University of Maiduguri including social networks seem to suggest that corruption is the largest industry with many practitioners in most developing nations. Corruption is a serious problem in many Asian countries according to the annual surveys conducted by the Hong Kong-based Political and Economic Risk Consultancy Ltd. (PERC) and the Berlin-based Transparency International (TI) in recent years. Since Singapore attained self-governance in 1959, corruption control has been top of the government agenda. According to Strait Times (2006) when Singapore took over from the British, corruption was prevalent. The Prevention of Corruption Ordinance was weak. Corruption was not a sizable offence and the powers of the anti-corruption bureau were inadequate. Public officers were poorly paid and the population was less educated, it became vital for Singapore to control corruption for national survival. According to the Straits Times study in 2006, PERC ranked Singapore as the third least corrupt country in the world and as the least corrupt of the 12 Asian countries in the study. During the same year, Singapore s seventh ranking on TI s Corruption Perception Index (CPI) made it the least corrupt of the 13 Asian countries in the 54-nation study, with Pakistan (ranked 53 rd ) as the most corrupt Asian country according to Transparency International report (2007). Even though Singapore s ranking on the 2007 CPI dropped to ninth position, it is still the least corrupt of the 13 Asian countries in the 52-nation survey, with Pakistan (ranked 48 th ) retaining its position as the most corrupt Asian country reported by the Transparency International (2008). In the 2016 CPI, Singapore s seventh ranking confirms its status as the least corrupt of the 13 Asian countries among the 85 countries surveyed, while Indonesia (ranked 80 th ) replaced Pakistan (ranked joint 71 st ) as the most corrupt country in Asia as forwarded by Transparency International (2013). However, in the case of Nigeria one of the major issues that undermined sustainable development today is corruption which preoccupied a high position for any good reason. According to Boston (2013) Nigeria is said to have lost up to 40% of its oil revenue to corruption. Similarly Kolade (2001) point out that accusations of corrupt practices are frequently made against government institutions and several individuals in positions of authority. This made it clear that it may not be possible at present to protect any society completely from corruption, Nigeria has persistently suffered from the overwhelming effects of corruption. Nigeria s tolerance for corruption has led it to having very high rates of poverty, conflict, insecurity and disease. According to the Transparency International Nigeria is ranked 144 th out of 177 nations in the world, scoring 27 points out of possible 100 points, thereby positioning the country as 33 rd most corrupt country in the world according to the transparency international report (2013). The African Sahel Analyst: ISSN Page 124

3 Comparative Analysis of Anti-Graft Institutions in Singapore and Nigeria corruption perception index indicates that Nigeria scored 27 in 2013 Transparency international report. If corruption is defined by UNDP (1999) as the misuse of public power, office or authority for private benefit-through bribery, extortion, influence peddling, nepotism, fraud, speed money or embezzlement, why is corruption a fact of life in Singapore and Nigeria and a way of life? How do we explain the different levels of corruption in these countries and what lessons are to be learnt by Nigeria? As the extent of corruption depends on the nature of the causes of corruption in these countries and the degree of effectiveness of the anti-corruption measures introduced by their governments, those governments which diagnose correctly the causes of corruption and take appropriate measures to minimise, if not eliminate these causes, will be more effective than those governments which do not observe this logic of corruption control. Therefore, this study is timely because of its theoretical relevance in justifying the authenticity or otherwise of the adopted theory, it is also relevant because of its wideness in scope of coverage than others, that only looked at a particular as aspect of the corruption of a particular nation without comparing it another, it is also relevant because it is in accordance with national priority of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Therefore, it is built on secondary source of data where materials were sourced from textbooks, journals, unpublished thesis and newspapers among others. The preceding sections contain conceptual clarification and theoretical issues, analysis and discussions of findings as well as conclusions and recommendations at the last section. Conceptual Clarifications and Theoretical Framework Concept of Corruption Attempts at defining concepts in social and management sciences have not been easy in view of the behavioural inclination of these disciplines. The concept of Corruption is not an exception to this. Various Scholars see it from different perspectives depending on their orientation. Nye in Onwuka, Okoh and Eme (2009) see corruption as deviant behaviour and progressed to define it thus: Corruption is a deviation from the formal duties of a public role because of private interactions regarding (personal, close family, private clique) pecuniary exercise of certain types of private regarding influence. This includes such behaviour as bribery (use of reward to pervert the judgment of a person in position of trust); nepotism (appointment by reason of astrictive relationship rather than merit); and misappropriation (illegal appropriation of public resources for private regarding uses). The above definition appear rather clumsy for analysis, especially by the choice of words or syntax. Its usefulness however lies in the attempt to characterise corruption as deviation from the norm (in ordered societies), pecuniary motive, bribery, nepotism and misappropriation of public resources to achieve private advantage. Another way of conceptualising Sahel Analyst: ISSN Page 125

4 African Journal of Management (Vol.2, No.3, 2017), Business Admin. University of Maiduguri corruption by Bello- Imam in Onwuka, Okoh and Eme, (2009) is to see it as the abuse of public office through the instrumentality of private agents, who actively offer bribes to circumvent public policies and process for competitive advantage and profit. Beyond bribery, public office can also be abused for personal benefit through patronage and nepotism, for example the theft of state assets or the diversion of state revenues. It is pertinent to note the comprehensive nature of the above definition and the negative correlation between corruption and development. This manifests in circumventing public policies and process solely for personal gains, public office that should be built on trust is abused and converted to selfish advantage through outright theft or diversion of public resources. Ogbuke and Enojo (2007) building on the works of Hornby (2001) see corruption as a dishonest illegal behaviour, especially of people in authority or the act of making somebody change from moral to immoral standards of behaviour. This view adds an ethical /behavioural dimension to this discourse, and it suggests that unless sound moral principles anchored on enduring cultural values and practices are imbibed, the anti-graft campaign could amount to chasing shadows, especially in a country like Nigeria. These authors asserted unequivocally that top level corruption is often controlled by hidden networks and represents the sum of various levels and types of irregular behaviour including abuse of power, conflict of interest, extortion, tribalism, nepotism or fraud. In corroborating this ethical angle to the conceptualisation of corruption, Ifesinachi (2004) captured it as all those behavioural orientations that impinge on and necessarily vitiates and destroys rules and basis of public and political conduct. He linked corruption in political and public life to natural human factors of greed and ambition for social-psychological, economic and political power. Poverty and serious economic hardships are often added as part of the motivations for corruption in Nigeria. This argument may be tenable for petty corruption as against grand corruption in public office. Petty or survival corruption according to Onwuka, Okoh and Eme (2009) is practiced by civil servants, who may be grossly, underpaid and depend on small rents from the public to feed their families and pay school fees. Grand corruption which translates to kleptomania occurs among high public officials and it often involves large sums of money. In operationalizing high-level or grand corruption, Kolade (2001) sees it as the abuse of an influential position for private gain; and as the exploitation of a system for securing unmerited advantage. The first part of the definition according to him relates to holders of influential positions (in public office, bureaucracy and private sector) who have access to national economic resources in their vantage positions as custodians and stewards of these resources. The second part relates to people who lobby such office holders for access to preferential or undue advantage. He referred to both groups as agents of corruption. Sahel Analyst: ISSN Page 126

5 Comparative Analysis of Anti-Graft Institutions in Singapore and Nigeria Furthermore Palmier (1985) indicates that Bureaucratic corruption goes beyond obtaining pecuniary benefits, it includes cronyism, favouritism, nepotism, and associated ills that warrant merit to be slaughtered on the altar of mediocrity in recruitment, promotion and motivation of employees as necessary planks upon which personnel administration rests and offer cardinal explanations for low productivity, inefficiency and poor service delivery in the public sector. Judicial corruption implies perversion of justice, compromising attitudinal disposition of law enforcement agents /agencies, sundry ills and avoidable human errors in the administration of justice. Moral corruption entails committing morally reprehensible acts deliberately and on a sustained basis. Causes of Corruption There are many causes of corruption across the globe but the intensity varies from one community to the other, therefore for the purpose of this paper the causes would be considered. An individual is likely to commit a corrupt act if he or she is; i. Paid a low salary ii. Provided with the opportunities for corruption and iii. Perceives corruption to be low risk, high reward activity. In other words, corruption thrives when the individuals concerned receive meager salaries, have ample opportunities to be corrupt, and are unlikely to be caught and not severely punished even if they are caught Ample opportunity According to Gould and Amaro-Reyes (2003), the expanding role of government in development has placed the bureaucracy in a monopolistic position and has enhanced the opportunities for administrative discretion. Excessive regulations together with this increased bureaucratic discretion provide opportunities and incentives for corruption in that regulations governing access to goods and services can be exploited by civil servants in extracting rents from groups vying for access to such goods and services. For example, in Hong Kong, the necessity for the government to regulate, control and prohibit certain activities provided ample opportunity for the corrupt in the areas of construction, import and export, health, hygiene, safety, prostitution, gambling, drugs, markets and stalls, immigration and emigration (De Speville, 2007). Low salary Palmier (2008) has identified low salaries as an important factor contributing to corrupt practices. If the official is not to be tempted into corruption and disaffection, clearly there is an obligation on the government to provide or at least allow such benefits as will ensure his loyalty; one might call it an implicit contract. He concluded that adequate pay was an essential ingredient in reform. In the same vein, Mauro (2007) has argued that when civil service pay is too low, civil servants may be obliged to use Sahel Analyst: ISSN Page 127

6 African Journal of Management (Vol.2, No.3, 2017), Business Admin. University of Maiduguri their positions to collect bribes as a way of making ends meet, particularly when the expected cost of being caught is low. The most important factor responsible for police corruption in Singapore during the colonial period was the low salaries of the members of the Singapore Police Force (SPF), especially those in the lower ranks. This factor was also blamed for the SPF s inefficiency and its inability to recruit suitably qualified personnel (Quah, 2009). Given the poor salaries of the policemen, it was not surprising that the Straits Times made this comment: It is at once evident that the native constables and the European police of the Inspector class are so underpaid that scandals are unavoidable (Straits Times quoted in Quah, (2009). Low Risk of Detection and Punishment Palmier (1985) emphasised that corruption is an illegal activity in all countries, individuals found guilty of corrupt offenses should be punished accordingly. However, in reality, the probability of detection and punishment of corrupt offenses varies in the different Asian countries. Corruption thrives in those Asian countries where the public perceives it to be a low risk, high reward activity as corrupt offenders are unlikely to be detected and punished. In contrast, corruption is not a serious problem in those Asian countries where corruption is perceived as a high risk, low reward activity as those involved in corrupt behavior are likely to be caught and severely punished. Theoretical Framework The study focused on system theory as the theoretical framework as used by Stafford Beer (1926), Robert Manynard Hutchis (1929) Talcott Parsons (1951), Ludwig Von Bertalanfy (1950), David Easton (1968) and Kartz and Khan (1969) among others. Systems theory has a significant effect on management science and understanding of public policy and programme. System may be defined as a set of social, biological, technological or material partners co-operating on a common purpose. According to Easton (1957) it is refers to as the complexity of interdependencies between parts, components and processes that involves discernable regulation of relationship and to a similar type of interdependencies with its surrounding. A system is a collection of parts unified to accomplish an overall goal. If one part of the system is removed, the nature of the system is changed as well. However, the system theory can be divided into the general system theory, the cybernetics and the Ashby machine model among others. Therefore Ackoff (1972) identified some basic features of the open system as follows: i. A set of objective designed by the anti-graft agencies of Singapore and Nigeria ii. An input, which comes into the system, this includes demand, support and expectations from the public in both nations which varies. iii. The conversion process or an input transforming device, through which resources or inputs are transformed into output also differs whereas Singapore excludes police involvement and does Sahel Analyst: ISSN Page 128

7 Comparative Analysis of Anti-Graft Institutions in Singapore and Nigeria iv. The output which is the end product, result or outcome from the system arising from the preceding steps. The output will also serve as input to other organisations or individuals, the type of output will depend on the nature of the input, the of conversion and the use of the product will have implications on the system itself through feedback mechanism v. An external environment which receives output of the system, economic and political variables and which subsequently assist the effort to resolve the problem vi. A feedback process is design to inform the environment on what the system is doing, at same time communicate back to the system the reaction of the environment to its output. This enables the system to adjust its output, and processing the input according to the demand of the environment. Comparative Anti-graft Measures between Singapore and Nigeria Both countries share same sentiments which reflect the determination and political will for the fight against corruption. The Singapore s corruption infested past as it forms that all important sub-structure, upon which all the super-structures of anti-corruption work rest. It provides the soil and the nutrient which allows the seeds of anti-corruption work to germinate and grow. The government has matched its words with deeds - it mobilised the public, and the entire civil service to fight corruption. The Corruption Practice Investigation Bureau of Singapore revealed (2000) that, the year 1975 marked a major turning point in the fight against corruption. The Minister of State Wee Toon Boon, then a serving Minister in the Government of the ruling party, was convicted of corruption. Such results demonstrated to the public the resolve of the government to keep Singapore clean. Similarly in Nigeria the former governors of Bayelsa state Depri Silva Alemisya and that of Adamawa state Bala Ngilari were also convicted of corruption charges in the court of law. In Singapore, the principal law is the Prevention of Corruption Act (PCA). This governs the primary offences of corruption and the powers of the enforcement agency, which is Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau CPIB. In addition, there is the Corruption, Drugs Trafficking and Other Serious Crimes (Confiscation of Benefits) Act (CDSA) which provides for the seizure and forfeiture of proceeds which a person convicted of corruption cannot satisfactorily account for. The PCA was enacted in 1960 to replace the previous Prevention of Corruption Ordinance. Since then, the Act had undergone numerous amendments to increase the powers of investigation of the Corrupt Practices Investigation Officers, enhance punishments for corruption and to plug loopholes to prevent exploitation by criminals in The Act renders Singapore citizens liable for punishment for corrupt offences committed outside Singapore and to be dealt with as if the offences had been committed in Singapore. Sahel Analyst: ISSN Page 129

8 African Journal of Management (Vol.2, No.3, 2017), Business Admin. University of Maiduguri While in Nigeria the constitution of federal republic of Nigeria (1999) had made the national assembly and state house of assembly to exercise the power of investigation. These powers should be used to guard against corruption and be deployed to supervise government business. Hence, the National Assembly clearly possesses the Power to expose Corruption. Same constitution also states that, the Judiciary, which comprises of all the courts in the country from the lower courts, which include: the Magistrate s, Area and Customary courts to the highest Court in the land, the Supreme Court. Section 6 of the Constitution establishes Superior Courts of Record and these include the High Courts and others of co- ordinate jurisdiction, the Court of Appeal, and the Supreme Court. All these courts are involved in the enforcement of anti-corruption laws as suspected offenders are tried before them. The CIPB reports (2000) stated that the effective enforcement agency is available in Singapore because having tough laws is no guarantee that there is effective enforcement. If there are tough laws but lax enforcement, corruption will still flourish because the corrupted escape detection and investigation. The situation will be like having a good battle plan but poor troops. It is therefore crucial to devote priority and attention to setting up an effective enforcement agency. In Singapore, CPIB is the only agency empowered to investigate corruption offences. Any other law enforcement agency which comes across or receives reports on corruption will have to hand over the case to CPIB. Unlike in Nigeria where there is a collaboration of police and other enforcement agencies. The Bureau slogan Swift and Sure is the message to all corrupt offenders that there will be swift action, certainty of results and justice will take its course. Similarly in Nigeria there is also the Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC) which is established to perform a similar task while the Public Complaints Commission is established under the Public Complaints Commission Act and operates to protect the public against corrupt oppressive exercise of power by public officers, the code of conduct tribunal is established primarily for the trial of persons who violate the provisions of the Code. The main thrust of the Code is to prevent corruption in public life and offices. The central Bank of Nigeria is another agency established to fight corruption in Nigeria which is not common in Singapore. The introduction of whistle blower policy is another milestone in anti-graft campaign in Nigeria which is not available in Singapore. Sure detection and strict enforcement of laws, no matter how effective, must however be complemented by effective adjudication. Detection, prosecution and subsequent court conviction have specific deterrence on offenders. This also has a general deterrence on the like-minded. Aided by the tough laws, the judiciary successfully created a regime of punishment that is deterrent enough to hammer home, loud and clear, the message that corruption does not pay. There is transparency in the justice process as all court proceedings are open, public hearings. Decisions are documented and subject Sahel Analyst: ISSN Page 130

9 Comparative Analysis of Anti-Graft Institutions in Singapore and Nigeria to public scrutiny. Both the prosecution and the defence can appeal against any decision made by the Courts. In Nigeria, the Police, Security Agencies and other law enforcement agencies of the state are established and governed by specific statutes. Police Act provides for Police with powers to investigate and arrest persons for corruption under all anti-corruption laws. The federal character commission (FCC) policy on equity provides for what should be an ideal platform for socio-economic development built on oneness, transparency, trust and accountability as well as the ICPC is established under the Corrupt Practices and other Related Offences Act and operates to protect the public service against corrupt practices are all aimed to check mate corruption in Nigeria. Moreover, Nigerian government has recently established a special court to facilitate the litigation charges against any prosecuted corrupt officials. Singaporean government alongside the statutory measures dealing with corrupt offenders, a proactive approach to curb corruption was adopted in the Government. With the full support of Parliament and the Heads of Government departments, strict rules and regulations have been formulated to govern the conduct of public officers. The civil service in Singapore initiated major reforms in May 1995 under the Public Service in the 21st Century (PS21) to attain sound administrative governance, organisational excellence and service orienteers. Such improvements in efficiency and effectiveness in public service delivery can act against corruption and reduce its opportunities. This is because a service delivered promptly and with no hassle leaves less room for corruption compared to a service which takes a long time and has tedious processing stages. Conclusion The paper carefully discussed the comparative analysis of anticorruption institutions between Singapore and Nigeria. Some of the major causes of corruption were identified which warranted both nations to set these anti-graft institutions identified. Then the panacea for Nigerian war against corruption is to learn from the Singaporeans and hesitate not to implement what is observed. This might in the long run benefit the government and the citizenry in general. Recommendations i. Commitment of the Political Leadership is crucial: The political leaders must be sincerely committed to the elimination of corruption. They must show exemplary conduct and adopt a modest life-style and should not be involved in corrupt practices themselves. Anyone found guilty of corruption must be punished, regardless of his position or status in society. Sahel Analyst: ISSN Page 131

10 African Journal of Management (Vol.2, No.3, 2017), Business Admin. University of Maiduguri ii. Comprehensive strategy is more effective: It is futile to combat corruption using incremental measures as comprehensive anti-corruption measures are needed to minimise corrupt behaviour among civil servants and the population. More specifically, the anti-corruption legislation must be comprehensive to prevent loopholes and must be periodically reviewed to introduce relevant amendments whenever required. Singapore s POCA was amended several times to enhance its effectiveness. iii. The Anti-Corruption Agency must itself be incorruptible: To ensure the integrity of its staff, the agency must be controlled or supervised by a political leader who is honest and incorrupt. The agency must also be staffed by honest and competent personnel. Any member found guilty of corruption must be punished and dismissed from the civil service. iv. The Anti-Corruption Agency must be removed from police control: This can be seen in the case of Singapore which became more effective in fighting corruption after the ACB and ACO was removed from the police forces in both countries. In Nigeria the fight against corruption has been made more difficult and less effective before of the police s involvement in anti-corruption activities. v. Reduce opportunities for corruption in vulnerable agencies: It is necessary to reduce or minimise the opportunities for corruption, especially in those government departments which are usually vulnerable to corrupt activities, such as customs, immigration, internal revenue, and police. vi. Reduce corruption by raising salaries if country can afford to do so: Finally, it is important to reduce the incentive for corruption among public officials by ensuring that their salaries and fringe benefits are competitive with private sectors References Adole, R.A (2016), Studies in Comparative Public Administration. Kaduna, Mike-B Publications Limited. Banerjee, Abhijit (2006), Can Anything Be Done About Corruption? in M.G. Quibria and J. Malcolm Dowling, eds. Current Issues in Economic Development: An Asian Perspective. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press for the Asian Development Bank. Code of Conduct Conduct Bureau (2010) Code of Conduct for Public Officers: Tips for Monitoring Abuja: Code of Conduct Bureau Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999): Abuja, Nigeria Sahel Analyst: ISSN Page 132

11 Comparative Analysis of Anti-Graft Institutions in Singapore and Nigeria De Speville, Bertrand (1997), Hong Kong: Policy Initiatives Against Corruption. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Gould, David J. and Jose A. Amaro-Reyes (2003), The Effects of Corruption on Administrative Performance: Illustrations from Developing Countries, World Bank Staff Working Paper No Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Ifesinachi, K. ( 2004) Africa s Wind of Corruption: Whither Anti- Corruption Policies, in Nigerian Journal of Public Administration and Local Government, UNN. XII(1) (May) Kolade, C. (2001) Corruption in Africa: Causes, Effects and Counter- Measures, in Belshaw, D, Calderisi, R; and Sugden, C. (eds). Faith in Development. Oxford: Regnum Books International Mauro, Paulo (1997), Why Worry about Corruption?. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund. Ogbuke, M. U. and Enojo, K. E (2007) Corruption in Nigeria: Implications for Urban Development, in Nigerian Journal of Research and Production, ESUT Enugu. 11( 1) (November), Onwuka, C. C, Okoh. C. I. and Eme, O. I. (2009) Corruption in Nigeria: Nature, Forms and Challenges before Anti-Corruption Agencies, in Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business.1( 8) (December) Palmier, Leslie (1985). The Control of Bureaucratic Corruption: Case Studies in Asia. New Delhi: Allied Publishers. Quah, Jon S.T. (1989), Singapore s Experience in Curbing Corruption, in Arnold J. Heidenheimer, Michael Johnston and Victor T. Le Vine, eds. Political Corruption: A Handbook. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers. Republic of Singapore (2003), Prevention of Corruption Act (Chapter 241). Revised Edition. Singapore: National Printers. Republic of Singapore (2000), The Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau. Singapore: CPIB. Sahel Analyst: ISSN Page 133

12 African Journal of Management (Vol.2, No.3, 2017), Business Admin. University of Maiduguri Republic of Singapore (2006), Economic Survey of Singapore Singapore: Ministry of Trade and Industry. Straits Times (2006), 1 August. Transparency International (2006), Corruption Perception Index Transparency International (2008), Combating Corruption: Are Lasting Solutions Emerging? Transparency International Report Berlin: Transparency International. Transparency International (2007), The Fight Against Corruption: Is the Tide Now Turning? Transparency International Report Berlin: Transparency International. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (1999), Fighting Corruption to Improve Governance. New York: United Nations Development Programme. Sahel Analyst: ISSN Page 134