Contents. Preface Acknowledgments

Transcription

1 Contents Preface xv Acknowledgments xxi Introduction xxiii Part I Terrorists' Threats and Societal Vulnerabilities 1 Chapter I Aircraft and Aviation Facilities Alona E. Evans 3 Introduction 3 The Problem of Terrorist Attacks on Civil Aviation and Aviation Facilities 4 Incidence of Attacks 4 Changing Character of Attacks on Civil Aviation 7 Changing Responses to Attacks on Civil Aviation 8 Existing National Measures for Controlling Attacks on Civil Aviation 10 Security Programs 10 Anti-Hijacking Legislation 15 Enforcement of Laws and Regulations 15 Existing International Measures for Controlling Attacks on Civil Aviation 20 Conventions and Bilateral Agreements 20 Security Measures 26 Proposed Sanctions or Enforcement Convention 28 Economic and Political Milieus 31 Economic Considerations: The Cost Factor in Hijacking 31 Economic Considerations: The Impact of Interest Groups 32 Political Considerations 36

2 Conclusion 38 Recommendations 39 Unilateral Action 39 Bilateral or Regional Action 39 Multilateral or Global Action 39 Appendix 1A: Legislation Relating to Control 55 of Aircraft Hijacking Appendix 1 B: States Parties to Relevant Aviation Conventions 63 Appendix 1C: Domestic and Foreign Aircraft Hijackings, January 1, 1960-June 30, Chapter 2 Nuclear Facilities and Materials Herbert H. Brown 149 Introduction 149 The Development of Commercial Nuclear Energy 149 The Transfer of Nuclear Technology: Dangers and Safeguards 150 Political Problems in the Development of Nuclear Energy 151 Technical Vulnerabilities of Nuclear Materials and Facilities 152 The Threat to Nuclear Facilities and Materials 155 Existing National Measures 161 Existing International Measures 166 An International Convention 174 Bilateral Agreements 176 Trilateral Safeguards Agreements 176 Conclusions 179 Recommendations 180 Chapter 3

3 Ocean Vessels and Offshore Structures J.D. Nyhart and /. Christian Kessler 187 Introduction 187 Political and Economic Milieus 189 The International Context 190 Ocean Uses and International Terrorism 192 Ocean Terrorism in International Law 196 The International Element in Ocean Terrorism on the High Seas 196 The Prospective Impact on Terrorism of an International Law-of-the-Sea Treaty 199 The International Element under the SNT 203 U.S. Legal Treatment of Ocean Territories 203 Jurisdiction 203 Substantive Law 205 Executory Action 208 Enforcement 209 Status of Recent Antiterrorist Planning 210 Conclusions 211 Recommendations 211 U.S. Agencies' Responsibilities and Planning 212 Contingency Planning: Industry 212 Projecting U.S. Policy 213 Design Improvements for Offshore Structures and Vessels 213 Chapter 4 New Vulnerabilities and the Acquisition of New Weapons by Nongovernment Groups Brian M. Jenkins and Alfred P. Rubín 221 Introduction 221 Weapons: Old and New 221 Chemical and Biological Weapons 222

4 Nuclear Weapons 229 Explosives and Incendiaries 235 Man-Portable Precision-Guided Munitions 237 Other Special Infantry Weapons 238 New Vulnerabilities 240 Water Supply Systems 241 Civil Aviation 244 Nuclear Energy Systems 245 Liquefied Natural Gas 247 Hazardous Chemicals 249 Responses 253 Technology to Combat Terrorism 253 Legal Controls 255 Conclusions 267 Recommendations 269 Unilateral Action 269 International Cooperation: Bilateral, Regional, and Multilateral or Global 270 Chapter 5 Protected Persons and Diplomatic Facilities John F. Murphy 277 Introduction 277 The Threat and Use of Force against Diplomáis: Background and Overview 278 Existing National Measures: Description and Assessment 282 National Legislation on the Protection of Diplomats 282 National Security Measures for the Protection of Diplomáis 289 Governmental Responses to the Kidnapping

5 of Diplomats 292 Existing International Measures: Description and Assessment 298 Traditional International Legal Measures (pre-oas and U.N. Conventions) 298 The OAS Convention 299 The U.N. Convention 304 Amendments to U.S. Legislation Implementing the OAS and U.N. Conventions 313 Political, Economic, and Social Milieus 315 Conclusions and Recommendations 318 Unilateral Actions 318 Bilateral and Regional Actions 323 Multilateral or Global Actions 326 Chapter 6 "Nonprotected" Persons or Things Jordan J. Paust 341 Introduction 341 The Problem: Protection 341 Possible Solutions 342 Targeting: The Question of "Innocence" 343 National Measures: Defining a Crime of Terrorism 345 The Problems 346 Domestic Example: Texas Statute, Examples of Foreign Legislation 348 International Perspective 349 The Use of Violent Strategies: General Limitations 350 Laws of Armed Conflict 352 General Human Rights Law 354 Claimed Exceptions 355 Military and Police Targets 358

6 Conclusions and Recommendations 360 Ideological Strategies 360 Economic Strategies 363 Diplomatic Strategies 363 International Legal Strategies 365 Appendix 6A: Targets of Terrorism 389 Appendix 6 B: Proposed Federal Legislation to Acquire Jurisdiction Over and Prosecute Acts of International Terrorism 393 Appendix 6C: Passive Personality Legislation 395 Appendix 6D: Protocol, for Bilateral and Multilateral Adoption As Such or in Conjunction with Other Human Rights Covenants, Treaties, etc. 397 Chapter 7 Personnel and Property of Transnational Business Operations Clarence J. Mann 399 Introduction 399 The Critical Characteristics of Transnational Business Operations 401 Evolution and Growth of a Global Economy 401 Conflict between Transnational Business Operations and National Interest 402 Conspicuous Symbol for Terrorist Exploitation 403 Discipline of the International Marketplace 403 No Special Protection under International Law or Treaty 404 The Nature of the Terrorist Threat toward Transnational Business Operations 404 Motives of Terrorists 405 Targets and Means 410 The Impact of Terrorism on Transnational

7 Business Operations 416 Employee Morale 416 Operating Expenses 418 Business-Government Relations 418 Investment Decisions 420 Private Sector Responses to the Threat of Terrorism 422 The Internal Security of the Enterprise 422 Cooperative Relationships 428 Media Self-Restraint 437 Hostage Insurance 445 Governmental Measures for Combating Terrorism 447 National Measures 448 International Measures 460 Conclusions and Recommendations 464 U.S. Policy 465 Research 467 Data Exchange 468 Private Sector Resource Center 469 Part II Prevention and Control of Terrorism: International Responses 483 Chapter 8 An International Control Scheme for the Prosecution of International Terrorism: An Introduction M. Sheriff Bassiouni 485 A Working Definition of International Terrorism 485 Prosecuting Terrorists: An International Control Scheme 485 Internationally Protected Targets and Persons and the Duty to Prosecute or Extradite 486 Municipal Crimes of Violence Having an

8 International Element 488 Conclusions 489 Recommendations 489 Chapter 9 The Apprehension and Prosecution of Offenders: Some Current Problems Alona E. Evans 493 Apprehension 493 Practice 493 Policy 495 Prosecution 503 Variations on Prosecution 503 The Problem of Fair Treatment 505 The Hazards of Prosecution 506 Conclusions 507 Recommendations 508 Chapter 10 Criminological Policy M Sheriff Bassiouni 523 The Terrorist as an Ideologically Motivated Offender 523 Sanctions Employed by Criminal Law 524 The Death Penalty 524 Imprisonment 525 Imprisonment: Its Role and Effectiveness 525 The Role of Imprisonment 525 Theories of Punishment 526 Is Imprisonment Effective? 528 An International Perspective 530 Conclusions 531 Recommendations 532 Chapter 11

9 Practical Problems of Law Enforcement Wayne A. Kerstetter 535 Introduction 535 International Agreements and Treaties 536 The Elimination of Sanctuaries 536 The Political Crimes Exception to Extradition Treaties 536 Restriction in the Interpol Constitution 538 International Documentation and Passports 539 Airport Security 539 National Legal Restraints 540 Antiterrorist Intelligence in the United States 540 The Dissemination of Information 541 The Protection of Sources 543 The Structure and Function of Law Enforcement Agencies 544 Conflict of Jurisdiction 544 The Need for Information 545 A National Data Base on Terrorism 546 An Interpol Police Force versus an International Working Group 547 An International Detention Center 548 Conclusions 548 Recommendations 548 Chapter 12 State Self-Help and Problems of Public International Law John F. Murphy 553 Introduction 553 The Unilateral Use of Armed Force: The

10 Israeli Raid at Entebbe 554 Brief Factual Background 554 The Debates in the U.N. Security Council 555 Implications for Future Action 558 Selected Other Situations Arguably Justifying the Use of Force as a Self-Help Measure 561 Variations on a Theme: Entebbe Revisited 561 The Use of Armed Force against States Serving as "Subversive Centers" for International Terrorists 563 State Self-Help Measures Not Involving the Use of Armed Force 565 Economic Sanctions 565 International Claims 567 Diplomatic Protests 568 Quiet Diplomacy 569 Conclusions and Recommendations 569 Chapter 13 Private Measures of Sanction Jordan J. Paust 575 Introduction 575 General Focus 575 An Objective Definition of Terrorism 576 Private Self-Help Sanctions: Strategies and Policies 577 Private Responses: Strategies of Sanctions 579 Legal Policies at Stake 582 Decisions and Conditioning Factors: Recent Trends 588 Public Opinion: Enlightenment 589 Respect, Rectitude, and Moral Suasion 592 Wealth Factors 593 Well-being Factors 596

11 Skill Factors 599 Power Factors 601 Policy Recommendations 604 Private Assassination and U.S. Policy 605 Education as a Key Deterrent 606 Free Media and a Code of Professional Ethics 606 Legislation 607 A Contract Clause 610 Conclusion 612 Appendix Conclusions and Recommendations 631 Introduction 633 General Recommendations of the Study 635 Drafting General Treaty Law 635 Promoting Cooperative National Action through International Conference(s) 636 Educational Programs 637 Media Guidelines 637 Negotiations: An Inappropriate Subject for Legislation 637 Specific Conclusions and Recommendations of the Study 638 Terrorists' Threats and Societal Vulnerabilities 638 Prevention and Control of Terrorism: International Responses 654 Additional Recommendations of Individual Working Group Members 666 American Society of International Law:

12 Working Group on Legal Aspects of International Terrorism 669 Index 671 About the Contributors 691 About the Editors 693 About the Society 695