CHARISMA DEMYSTIFIED: POTENTIAL EFFECTS ON CANADIAN ARMED FORCES LEADERSHIP

Transcription

1 CHARISMA DEMYSTIFIED: POTENTIAL EFFECTS ON CANADIAN ARMED FORCES LEADERSHIP Major T.D. White JCSP 40 Exercise Solo Flight Disclaimer Opinions expressed remain those of the author and do not represent Department of National Defence or Canadian Forces policy. This paper may not be used without written permission. PCEMI 40 Exercice Solo Flight Avertissement Les opinons exprimées n engagent que leurs auteurs et ne reflètent aucunement des politiques du Ministère de la Défense nationale ou des Forces canadiennes. Ce papier ne peut être reproduit sans autorisation écrite. Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, as represented by the Minister of National Defence, Sa Majesté la Reine du Chef du Canada, représentée par le ministre de la Défense nationale, 2014.

2 CANADIAN FORCES COLLEGE COLLÈGE DES FORCES CANADIENNES JCSP 40 PCEMI CHARISMA DEMYSTIFIED: POTENTIAL EFFECTS ON CANADIAN ARMED FORCES LEADERSHIP By Major T.D. White This paper was written by a student attending the Canadian Forces College in fulfilment of one of the requirements of the Course of Studies. The paper is a scholastic document, and thus contains facts and opinions, which the author alone considered appropriate and correct for the subject. It does not necessarily reflect the policy or the opinion of any agency, including the Government of Canada and the Canadian Department of National Defence. This paper may not be released, quoted or copied, except with the express permission of the Canadian Department of National Defence. La présente étude a été rédigée par un stagiaire du Collège des Forces canadiennes pour satisfaire à l'une des exigences du cours. L'étude est un document qui se rapporte au cours et contient donc des faits et des opinions que seul l'auteur considère appropriés et convenables au sujet. Elle ne reflète pas nécessairement la politique ou l'opinion d'un organisme quelconque, y compris le gouvernement du Canada et le ministère de la Défense nationale du Canada. Il est défendu de diffuser, de citer ou de reproduire cette étude sans la permission expresse du ministère de la Défense nationale. Word Count: 5066 Compte de mots: 5066

3 1 CHARISMA DEMYSTIFIED: POTENTIAL EFFECTS ON CANADIAN ARMED FORCES LEADERSHIP "Charisma is the term commonly used in the sociological and political science literature to describe leaders who by the force of their personal abilities are capable of having profound and extraordinary effects on followers." INTRODUCTION Robert J. House 1 Commanding military operations is a complex and difficult task in today s current operating environment. Of late, coalition led operations have become common place. This approach involves increased emphasis on international and inter-governmental coordination and integration despite the lack of a coherent and structured chain of command. With a number of different agencies, stakeholders and diametrically opposed objectives, challenges in establishing a common intent should be anticipated. Therefore, today s military commanders more than ever will need to establish influence not through directive leadership techniques as part of a rigid hierarchical rank structure... but rather through secured commitment which can be established through a shared vision. 2 Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) leadership doctrine suggests that a shared vision can be attained through a transformational leadership approach. 3 Unfortunately, the doctrine falls short on how to develop the necessary attributes needed to lead from a transformational leadership perspective. An examination of leadership literature across 1 Robert J. House, "A 1976 Theory of Charismatic Leadership. In J.G. Hunt and L.L. Larson (eds). Leadership: The Cutting Edge. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, Torrance White, "Lawrence of Arabia: An Effective Ineffectual Commander," (Joint Command & Staff College Programme Course Paper, Canadian Forces College, 2014), Canada, Department of National Defence, A-PA /AP-004, Leadership in the Canadian Forces: Conceptual Foundations (Ottawa: DND Canada, 2005): 68.

4 2 the social science spectrum suggests charisma is a key factor in establishing a common vision. Regrettably, CAF leadership doctrine also falls short on providing a thorough explanation or model for charismatic leadership; instead it offers only a biased account of its pitfalls. 4 Highlighted by Joint Command & Staff Programme (JCSP) candidate consensus that a significant number of CAF senior leadership presentations this year have fallen short from a charismatic perspective coupled with the leadership doctrinal gaps identified, this paper will look to examine charismatic leadership as a viable approach to organizational effectiveness in today s operating environment. Specifically, it will define charisma and charismatic leadership, identify the behaviours and attributes needed to exude charisma, analyse both the advantages and pitfalls of this type of leadership and finally, offer a proposal that could incorporate charisma into CAF leadership training at all levels of the institution. The perspective of this paper is that charisma is a vital component of military leadership that aids in developing a shared vision, increased levels of empathy and empowerment. Increased follower commitment and performance gleaned from charismatic leadership is directly attributable to enhanced organizational effectiveness. Consequently, the fundamentals of charisma should be incorporated into CAF leadership training given the current operating environment and the number of stakeholders that fall outside a leader s direct chain of command. 4 Canada, Department of National Defence, A-PA /AP , 68.

5 3 CHARISMA Charisma remains a poorly understood phenomenon within a leadership context for several reasons. First, it is relatively easy to identify leaders who are charismatic but more much more difficult to describe the attributes needed to radiate charisma. Second, early charismatic theorists argue that charisma is an innate characteristic granted only to the divine few. Some current day scholars hold the view that some leaders are innately more charismatic than others and that some sort of submissiveness is needed to divide the leader follower relationship within a charismatic leadership context. Further, some argue charisma can really only be ascribed to a leader by followers and not by anyone looking in on the art of leadership. Dr. Richard Dekmejian, a renowned political scientist eloquently describes this conviction stating: All too often, western scholars and observers have reacted personally to charismatic phenomena and promptly judged them to be fanatical. The scholar should never forget that he is an outsider to the situation, and should abstract his ego and values from the evaluation process; the determination of the genuineness of the leader s charisma should be left to his followers. 5 This section will look to unlock the mystique behind charisma by analysing the academic literature available with a view to gleaning how charisma and charismatic leadership might be employed to the benefit of CAF leadership. 5 Richard Dekmejian, Charismatic Leadership in Messianic and Revolutionary Movements: The Mahdi (Muhammad Ahmad) and the Messiah (Shabbatai Sevi), in Religious Resurgence: Contemporary Cases in Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. edited by R. Anton and M. Hegland, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987, 85.

6 4 The term charisma is derived from a Greek word meaning divinely inspired gift. 6 It has been used in political and religious realms for centuries to adduce legitimacy to power. Charismatic leaders were thought to comprise especially magical abilities, revelations of heroism, power of the mind and speech. 7 This connotation likely helped to create the mystic behind charisma but also generated a false expectation that only the divinely gifted could emanate it. Max Weber, an early sociologist and pioneer of charismatic leadership theory argued that charisma occurs in social crisis where leaders emerge to provide radical visions in order to solve complex problems. Followers would then perceive these leaders as extraordinary. 8 Leading leadership scholar, Gary Yukl argues charisma is more likely to be attributed to leaders who advocate a vision that is highly discrepant from the status quo but still within the latitude of acceptance by followers. 9 Additionally, he posits that leaders who self-sacrifice, take personal risks and garner follower trust are characterized as being more charismatic. 10 A leader s confidence and enthusiasm in communicating a stated vision also plays a factor in assessing charisma. Studies have shown that leaders who are able to inspire through 6 Jaepil Choi, A Motivational Theory of Charismatic Leadership: Envisioning, Empathy, and Empowerment, Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies 13, no. 1 (2006): A Etzioni. A Comparative Analysis of Complex Organizations (NY: Free Press, 1961), Max Weber. The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. (A.M. Henderson and T Parsons, trans.; T. Parsons, ed.). (NY: Free Press, 1947). 9 Gary Yukl, Leadership in Organizations 6th Ed (Boston: Pearson Custom, 2006): Ibid.

7 5 emotional appeal can have a significant impact on operational effectiveness as compared to leaders who use authoritative and participative leadership approaches. Although researchers remain uncertain regarding whether charisma is a set of behaviours, a cluster of traits or a leader-follower relationship, it is nevertheless clear that articulating and implementing a vision and establishing an emotional connection with followers are key components to charismatic influence. Due the documented link to organizational effectiveness, it is prudent to explore charisma further from a military leadership perspective given the need for a fresh and inspiring vision necessitated by the complexities in current day operations and the current shortcomings of employing leadership techniques that primarily rely on rigid hierarchal rank structures. Further, there is a link between charisma and CAF leadership through transformational leadership due to the requirement to implement a common vision, create an emotional attachment and develop an enhanced understanding of a follower s perception of a leader. 13 A brief review of transformational leadership will help to establish this link to charismatic influence. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP James MacGregor Burns developed the concept of transformational leadership in He argued that transformational leaders have the ability to motivate followers to 11 Shelley Kirkpatrick and Edwin Locke, Direct and Indirect Effects of Three Core Charismatic Leadership Components on Performance and Attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology 81, no. 1 (1996): B. Shamir, R. House and M.B. Arthur, The Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership: A Self-Concept Based Theory. Organizational Science 4 (1993): Canada, Department of National Defence, A-PA /AP , 69.

8 6 attain enhanced performance objectives while transactional leaders establish contractual exchanges with their followers. 14 Transformational leadership has been defined as stimulating and inspiring followers to both achieve extraordinary outcomes and, in the process, develop their own leadership capacity. 15 CAF leadership doctrine states transformational leaders... alter the moral awareness of others, sharpen their sense of discrepancy between what is and what could be, provide a social path for change and thereby rouse followers to collective... action. 16 It further promotes the transformational leadership approach by suggesting that an... examination of historical figures considered to be exemplary and superior leaders invariably reveal that they would score high on transformational characteristics. 17 Clearly, CAF leadership doctrine promotes transformational leadership and methods of enhancing this type of leader influence behaviour should be examined. Bernard Bass and Ronald Riggio explored transformational leadership in detail and identified four critical components. First, they defined idealized influence which requires the leader to articulate a vision and a sense of mission with a view to inspiring and building trust and respect. Second, they defined individualized consideration which requires the leader to exhibit considerate and supportive behavior towards the follower. Third, they defined inspirational motivation which requires the leader to communicate high expectations and inspire followers. Fourth, they defined intellectual stimulation 14 James MacGregor Burns, Leadership (NY: Harper & Row, 1978). 15 B.M Bass and R. Riggio. Transformational Leadership. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum (2006): Canada, Department of National Defence, A-PA /AP , Ibid, 69.

9 7 which requires the leader to think creatively and promote innovative ways of viewing situations. 18 All four components work in conjunction with each other to help evince influence through use of specific behavioural competencies. A number of studies have highlighted a link between transformational leadership and enhanced follower commitment and work performance. A prominent study in 1985 that involved Israeli Defence Force (IDF) soldiers showed that commitment can be secured by using the transformational leadership approach. 19 Similarly, a group of scholars provided designated US military leaders specific transformational leadership training as part of larger case study. The leaders ended up receiving significantly higher performance scores over a given time period compared to those who did not receive the training. 20 Bass and Riggio suggest that each of the new components of transformational leadership can help build follower commitment 21 which may help to provide the intrinsic motivation required to complete team goals under demanding circumstances even if followers do not fall within the leader s direct chain of command. There is a close link between idealized influence, individualized consideration, inspirational motivation and charisma. Since those components make up the majority of the transformational leadership approach and it is the preferred leadership approach within the CAF, it is prudent to examine charismatic leadership to see if it can enhance 18 B.M Bass and R. Riggio. Transformational Leadership. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum (2006). 19 R Gal, Commitment and Obedience in the Military: An Israeli Case Study. Armed Forces & Society, 11 (1985), T. Dvir, D. Ewen, B. Avolio, and B. Shamir, Impact of Transformational Leadership on Follower Development and Performance: A Field Experiment. Academy of Management, 45 (2002): B.M Bass and R. Riggio. Transformational Leadership..., 36.

10 8 transformational leadership behaviours. Arguably, these theoretical concepts are interlinked considerably and can achieve similar effect. CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP CAF leadership doctrine defines charismatic leadership as... the ability to project self-confidence and dominance, strong convictions which supposedly taps into the latent hopes and desires of their followers, and the ability to express their beliefs convincingly and powerfully. 22 With a link established between transformational leadership and charisma, it is next necessary to review charismatic leadership to determine if specific actions could enhance operational effectiveness and broaden the attributed benefits as described in doctrine. This section will look to further define charismatic leadership and highlight specific components of this leadership approach. It will be shown that charismatic leadership can improve follower performance by establishing an emotional attachment that enhances commitment. An early scholar of charismatic leadership, David Berlew, argues that charismatic leaders implement four specific activities that distinguish themselves from noncharismatic leaders. First, they formulate an organizational vision. Second, they create specific tasks that have meaning for both the followers and the organization as a whole. Third, they develop a sense of personal confidence and control among members. Fourth, 22 Ibid, 67.

11 9 they look to develop behaviours that empower subordinates. 23 Jay Conger and Rabindra Kanungo, authors of several books and journal articles on charismatic leadership also suggest charismatic leaders can be differentiated with non-charismatic leaders through specific identifiable behaviours. They argue a charismatic leader provides... a strategic vision, unconventional or countercultural management practices and tactics involving personal risk, articulation and impression management skills, and inspirational management practices. 24 Jaepil Choi, a professor at Hong Kong University, posits that charismatic leaders... generate positive individual outcomes by displaying behaviors that stimulate followers needs. 25 He defines those behaviours as envisioning, empathy and empowerment. Shelley Kirkpatrick and Edwin Locke similarly suggest the three critical components of charismatic leaders are vision, vision implementation and communication style. 26 A number of case studies have been completed which have analysed the effectiveness of charismatic leadership. Several prominent leadership scholars reviewed over twenty laboratory studies and found charismatic leadership to be closely linked with positive work performance, attitudes and perceptions. 27 Bass and Avolio also conducted a thorough analytical study on charismatic and transformational leadership by reviewing 23 David Berlew, "Leadership and Organizational Excitement." In D.A. Kolb, I.M. Rubin and J.M. McIntyre (eds.). Organizational Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Jay Conger and Rabindra Kanungo, Charismatic Leadership: The Elusive Factor in Organizational Effectiveness (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988): Jaepil Choi, A Motivational Theory of Charismatic Leadership: Envisioning, Empathy, and Empowerment, Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies 13, no. 1 (2006): Shelley Kirkpatrick and Edwin Locke. Direct and Indirect Effects of Three Core Charismatic Leadership Components on Performance and Attitudes, Journal of Applied Psychology 81, no. 1 (1996): B. Shamir, R.J. House and M.B. Arthur. The Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership: A Self-Concept Based Theory. Organizational Science 4 (1993): 1-17

12 10 over fifteen similar studies with positive results. 28 Followers who rated their leaders as charismatic consistently believed their superiors looked after the interests of the organization as well as their own personal interests. These leaders demonstrated a willingness to exert extra effort when needed which elevated motivation and loyalty among their followers. A review of the literature on charismatic leadership shows common leader attributes. Scholars agree that leaders, who implement a vision, articulate it effectively and establish an emotional relationship based on empathy and empowerment can be more charismatic. However, whether these components are learned behaviours and whether specific actions can enhance a leader s charisma still remains to be determined. It will be argued that an examination of several prominent charismatic leadership models can help to draw out specific leadership traits that could be learned and used to enhance charisma. CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP MODELS Although, there are a number of charismatic leadership models offered within the literature, the three models examined within this paper are helpful in drawing out specific leadership traits that can enhance charisma. The first model to be reviewed is Choi s Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership 29 model which presents a conceptual framework for the impacts of charismatic leadership on followers. The second model was 28 B.M. Bass and B.J. Avolio, Transformational Leadership: A Response to Critiques. In M.M Chemers and R. Ayman (Eds), Leadership Theory and Research: Perspectives and Directions. San Diego, CA: Academic Press (1993): Jaepil Choi, A Motivational Theory of Charismatic Leadership..., 26.

13 11 developed by Hararo Ingram. He offers a theoretical analysis of the Charismatic Relationship 30. The third model introduced will be Conger and Kanungo s Charismatic Leadership Influence Process 31 which describes... distinguishable behavioral components of charismatic leadership. 32 This literature suggests that specific identifiable leadership traits can enhance charisma and more importantly, can be learned through formalized training. Choi s Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership Model draws on previous scholastic work. The critical leader components are identified as envisioning, empowerment and empathy with specific traits, or what Choi labels motivational mechanisms, 33 that define a leader s tasks within each component. Envisioning involves the creation of a desired end state which can have a positive impact on followers and create an air of excitement. Beyond the establishment of a vision, he argues the articulation of that vision is a critical facet of charismatic leadership. 34 Empowerment involves increasing follower self-efficacy. Choi contends that setting initial objectives that are relatively easy to attain and then gradually increasing task complexity coupled with verbal persuasion and recognition are key aspects to empowerment. Empathy... is the ability to understand another person s motives, values and emotions. 35 Choi claims that charismatic leaders look to understand the needs of followers with a view to 30 Haroro Ingram, The Charismatic Leadership Phenomenon in Radical and Militant Islamism. Burlington (VT: Ashgate, 2013): Jay Conger and Rabindra Kanungo, Charismatic Leadership..., Ibid, Jaepil Choi, A Motivational Theory of Charismatic Leadership..., Ibid, Ibid.

14 12 establishing an emotional bond. As with transformational leadership, individualized consideration is a key component of charismatic leadership. Choi also describes contextual factors that must be considered including culture, structure and personalities. These factors can impact the overall institutional outcomes identified within Choi s model. Figure 1 graphically depicts the motivational effects of charismatic leadership from critical components to expected outcomes: Figure 1: The Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership (Jaepil Choi, A Motivational Theory of Charismatic Leadership..., 26) Ingram developed his charismatic leadership model after examining charismatic leadership traits of prominent radical Islamic religious leaders. He argues the core principles involved in charismatic leadership are universal. They involve a relationship between leaders and followers with charisma as its bonding element. He believes contextual factors make up this relationship and identifies four critical parts to the charismatic relationship. The charismatic collective, perception of a crisis, centres, and the charismatic leader which form the nucleus of this relationship with bonds established

15 13 between each of the parts. The strength of these bonds correlates with the level of charisma. The charismatic collective deals with an identifiable group that come together to accomplish a given task. The leader s job is to strengthen the collective s belief that they are a strong and unified team. The perception of a crisis deals not necessarily with a crisis per se but more so an issue that has arisen that needs to be rectified. Noteworthy, the more important the crisis, the easier it is to galvanize followers to remedy the issue. Often, in an organizational setting, the team may not be performing optimally and effectiveness needs to be enhanced, and this increase in drive can be achieved by a leader who can passionately convey the urgency for action. Finally, a charismatic leader reminds the collective of the importance of centres. Ingram describes centres as specific collective values that remain ideals for the organization. From a CAF perspective, these centres could include stated military ethos like duty, honour, loyalty, integrity and courage. The leader s ability to draw upon these constant values can help to enhance follower commitment by giving the collective something toward which to strive. Figure 2 depicts the charismatic relationship between all the parts and the necessary bonds needed to exude charisma:

16 14 Figure 2: The Charismatic Relationships (Haroro Ingram, The Charismatic Leadership Phenomenon in Radical and Militant Islamism..., 30) Conger and Kanungo based their model on the followers perception of a leader. They identified specific behavioural components of charismatic leadership that can be attributed to follower acceptance to a given leader. They define a three stage influence process that leads to specific organizational and individual outcomes. In the initial stage, the charismatic leader assesses the current situation and evaluates the deficiencies. During the second stage, the charismatic leader formulates and articulates a vision highly discrepant with the current plan of action. During the third stage, the charismatic leader provides effective leadership through self-sacrifice and sets attainable goals and empowers followers to accomplish their assigned tasks. Figure 3 overviews this influence process and the stages involved:

17 15 Figure 3: The Charismatic Leadership Influence Process (Jay Conger and Rabindra Kanungo, Charismatic Leadership..., 81) According to these models, charismatic leadership is an influence process that starts with the formulation and articulation of an inspirational vision. Then the leader needs to remind followers of the organizational values involved while also identifying important issues that need to be rectified. By rousing the collective through effective communication, the leader is able to strengthen the bonds articulated in Ingram s charismatic triangle and thus elevate their charismatic persona concurrently. Additionally, charismatic leadership involves establishing an emotional link between the leader and followers through empowerment and empathetic actions. Within this realm, leaders need to set the example, build trusting relationships, and develop an environment where followers feel they are able to succeed and attribute some of that success to the leader s efforts. Even though the literature has ample reference of how a charismatic leader behaves, it still needs to be determined if charisma can be learned and the specific

18 16 actions that a leader learning to engage in charismatic leaders could take in order to enhance follower s perceptions of increased leader charisma for the sake of organizational ambitions. ENHANCING CHARISMA A common viewpoint is that charisma is a something that a person either possesses or does not. 36 However, it appears that charismatic traits can be learned and enhanced as they are not divine gifts given only to a few in positions of power and prestige. Certainly, some leaders are naturally better at exuding charismatic traits but those who are not still can enhance their charisma through focused training. Jane Howell, a professor of organizational behaviour at the Ivey Business School echoed this sentiment at a presentation given at an annual meeting of the Academy of Management where she argued that charisma is a learned behaviour and provided empirical evidence to substantiate her position. 37 In a laboratory study that compared the effects of charismatic leader behaviour on followers, she provided volunteer actresses with specific charismatic leadership training. They were told to act in a charismatic, structured or considerate fashion to influence workers to complete a given task. The critical finding was that the learned charismatic leadership style was able to generate the highest productivity levels and leader-follower perceptions scores. Given this finding, a brief overview of what some of the key potential components of CAF charisma training will be offered. The model 36 Alan Bryman, Charisma and Leadership in Organizations (London: Sage, 1992). 37 Jane Howell, A Laboratory Study of Charismatic Leadership, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management (San Diego, California, 1985).

19 17 includes establishing a vision, articulating it to followers and establishing an emotional appeal with those working with the leader towards the accomplishment of an assigned mission. As a charismatic leader needs to formulate an inspiring vision, training on how to develop personal visions should be provided to CAF leadership. Burt Nanus, author of Visionary Leadership, defines a vision as... a realistic, credible, attractive future for your organization. 38 He argues a leader needs to have a reasonable understanding of the range of possible outcomes in a future operating environment. After examining future outcomes, he suggests cross-examining them with a developed vision to ensure it is robust enough remain effective in turbulent times. Finally, he recommends looking out a decade past the time horizon of the vision selected to reduce the likelihood of any catastrophic surprises. Once a well formulated and inspiring vision is developed, charismatic leaders are ready to articulate their visions to followers. The key to articulating a vision is effective communication. Studies have shown this is the single most important factor with regards to charismatic leader traits. 39 Consistently, charismatic leaders have been identified as powerful and spellbinding orators. 40 They are known to be very persuasive communicators that use simple, yet effective, techniques to articulate their perspectives. The use of metaphors, analogies and 38 Burt Nanus, Visionary Leadership (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992): B Shamir, Arthur, M.B 40 Alan Bryman, Charisma and Leadership in Organizations (London: Sage, 1992).

20 18 historical references substantiate their vision. 41 Charismatic leaders... inculcate key ideas into the follower s minds so that their messages will have a profound impact. 42 Specific techniques include... speaking with a captivating voice tone, making direct eye contact, showing animated facial expressions and having a powerful, confident and dynamic interaction style. 43 Fiol, Harris and House argue that charismatic leaders use more inclusive speech and abstract patterns within their messaging. 44 Charismatic leaders are known to include specific references to values, collective identity and history. These behaviours clearly demonstrate Ingram s charismatic triangle in action. Rated as the top speech given in the 20 th Century, Martin Luther King s I have a Dream speech used many of the techniques mentioned. 45 His extraordinary communication skills were noted by Stephen Oates, a former professor of American history, stating People idolized him all the same, whites because he appealed to the best in America and did not rant at them. Negroes because he articulated their longing, hurts and aspirations with what Time called an indescribable capacity for empathy. 46 With a view to improving CAF leader oratory skills, training should be provided that highlights the key communication styles of effective rhetoric. A review of influential and charismatic speeches in the past can aid in drawing out specific techniques. So once a vision has been developed and conveyed, it is 41 Conger, Jay, A. The Charismatic Leader: Beyond the Mystique of Exceptional Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Jaepil Choi, A Motivational Theory of Charismatic Leadership..., Shelley Kirkpatrick and Edwin Locke, Direct and Indirect Effects of Three Core Charismatic Leadership Components on Performance and Attitudes..., C.M. Foil, D. Harris and R. House, Charismatic Leadership :Strategies For Effecting Social Change, Leadership Quarterly, 10 (1999): American Rhetoric: Top 100 Speeches. Last accessed May 1, Stephen Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound: The Life of Martin Luther King Jr (NY: Penguin, 1982).

21 19 still necessary to continue to develop and enhance an emotional relationship with followers as part of the charismatic process. A brief review of some of the key aspects of emotional appeal will aid in defining specific training needed to enhance charisma. There are a number of factors that can improve the charismatic appeal of leaders. As charisma is a perception based trait, physical appearance plays a key part in establishing an emotional connection. Efran and Patterson discovered... that more attractive looking candidates were more successful in Canadian Parliamentary elections Social science scholar, Paul Cherulnik argues that physical attractiveness can have an influence on leader success. His research surmises attractive individuals have been found to be more persuasive and more popular 48 as well as having greater selfconfidence in their abilities. 49 This point of view is not to say that only attractive leaders can exude charisma, but rather that a leader s image needs to be considered as an integral part of leadership. It speaks to the importance of CAF leaders engaging in physical training to enhance physique and attending to dress and deportment in their daily regimes to maximize the charismatic effect. A charismatic leader must also align personal actions with their stated vision. Through demonstrated dedication and personal sacrifice, charismatic leaders can... inspire followers to transcend their self-interests for the sake of the collective goal M.G. Efran, and E.W Patterson. "Voters are Beautiful: The Effect of Physical Appearance on a National Election." Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 6 (1974): Paul Cherulnik, "Physical Appearance, Social Skill, and Performance as a Leadership Candidate," Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 16 (1995): Ibid.

22 20 Further, by displaying sensitivity to followers emotional needs, charismatic leaders can enhance their emotional appeal. The critical piece in establishing this appeal requires leaders to have an enhanced understanding of what is important to their followers. By focusing on what actually matters to a subordinate member, CAF leaders will be able to align followers personal objectives with the collective objectives. This process is especially important when stakeholders involved in the accomplishment of a task do not fall within the current chain of command. Once organizational objectives are deduced, charismatic leaders need to go out of their way to establish rapport, determine the stakeholder s intentions and look to incorporate follower needs into the current plan. With significant empirical evidence that charismatic leadership can enhance follower commitment and work performance, it is prudent to institutionalize this leadership approach. There are a number of activities that could be implemented to ensure charisma is taken more seriously in the CAF. First, it is recommended that further studies be completed within a CAF environment to truly understand the theorized benefits. It is suggested that Commanding Officer change of command parade speeches be reviewed for charismatic influence throughout the CAF. The data gleaned could be used to compare with post command leadership perceptions scores within a longitudinal study. Additionally, CAF leadership doctrine needs to be updated and charismatic influence behaviours should be included in that review. Presently, Conceptual Foundations does a poor job explaining the benefits of charismatic leadership. Moreover, Leading the Institution, which provides a thorough overview of strategic leadership at the 50 Jaepil Choi, A Motivational Theory of Charismatic Leadership: Envisioning, Empathy, and Empowerment..., 27.

23 21 institutional level, never mentions charisma or charismatic leadership as if it is rather meaningless when employed by a senior leader. Finally, as recommended, charisma foundational training should be offered to both junior and senior leadership with a view to enhancing charisma within the CAF. Specific learnable traits should be considered the baseline knowledge needed to maximize leader potential. Charisma is a critical component of effective leadership. Charismatic traits can be learned with a view to enhancing leadership within the CAF. CAF leadership training needs to include specific charisma enhancing activities. Updates to doctrine that includes references to what charismatic leadership involves, how it is achieved, and how it is developed or enhanced in both junior and senior leaders needs to be initiated. Further empirical study and analysis which could aid in substantiating this change initiative needs to be conducted within the CAF context. Specific details on formulating a vision and articulating that vision through effective communication skills were offered to assist in the development of this training. Actions to increase levels of empathy and empowerment which leads to a heightened level of emotional appeal were identified. What is left is to review some of the challenges inherent in charismatic leadership and in developing charisma in military leaders. PITFALLS OF CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP Charismatic leaders can have considerable influence in organizations which is why recommendations have been made to enhance charisma within CAF leaders. Notwithstanding the positive impacts that a charismatic leader can have on an

24 22 organization, there are documented negatives effects that are commonly referred to as the dark side of charisma. A review of this dark side will aid in determining where mistakes have been made and in ensuring that the charismatic leader s influence remains beneficial and consistent with the values of the organization. House and Howell contend that charismatic leadership can be separated into personalized and socialized influence behaviours. 51 They suggest personalized charismatic leadership entails... personal dominance, narcissistic and authoritarian behaviour [which] serves the leader s self-interest and is exploitive to others. 52 They define socialized charismatic leadership as... egalitarian behaviour [which] serves collective interests [that in turn] develop and empowers others. 53 Yukl describes the socialized concept as an emphasis on internalization of values rather than personal identification. CAF leadership doctrine describes the dark side of charismatic leadership as focused on personal power. They suggest personal power leaders... are selfaggrandizing; they manipulate and use others to achieve a personal agenda or attract personal devotion. 54 Salient examples of this type of leadership range from Adolf Hitler to Jim Jones, the prominent cult leader. Using Ingram s charismatic relationship triangle, it can be surmised that the dotted lines representing the bonds needed to strengthen the charismatic collective, perception of a crisis and centres become more important in the 51 Jane Howell, and Robert House. The Bright and Dark Sides of Charismatic Leadership. Paper presented at the 23rd International Congress of Applied Psychology, Madrid, Deanne Den Hartog, Paul Koopman and Jaap Van Muijen, "Charismatic Leadership: A State of the Art," Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, no 2, 1995, Ibid. 54 Canada, Department of National Defence, A-PA /AP , 68.

25 23 eyes of the personalized charismatic leader versus the bonds needed to strengthen the triangle itself. This places the central focus on the personalized charismatic leader rather than what is trying to be accomplished. Because of examples throughout history where charismatic leaders turned narcissistic and exemplified hubris behaviour it is necessary to examine options to ensure CAF leaders do not fall into that same trap. If socialized charismatic leadership is the desired model for CAF leaders, a mindset is needed to ensure the institutional values and objectives remain at the forefront of the leader s agenda. Service before self must be operationalized as one of Ingram s centres within the CAF. Additionally, unpretentious leader behaviours should be encouraged. As an example, current CAF leadership often refer to first person plural arrangements when describing actions within their command. By using we, us and our to the leader s vernacular, instead of me, I and mine, a leader can demonstrate that the organizational goals take precedence over personal objectives. This slight shift in communication style helps to empower followers rather than conveying that the followers are being exploited for personal gain. Additionally, by self-sacrificing and leading through personal example, followers can observe tangible efforts by the leader towards the accomplishment of a given task rather than for the attainment of their own personal ambitions. While charismatic leadership has a dark side and history has shown that some past charismatic leaders have pursued personal objectives over the organizational values, it is possible to institute a focus on social charismatic leadership to offset any imbalance between personal and collective ambitions. The critical component is recognizing that

26 24 personalized charismatic leadership issues do exist and to inculcate organizational values throughout the entire institution so that one leader does not rise above the collectives objectives. Further, socialized charismatic leadership behaviours should be consistently encouraged with leading through example remaining a cornerstone leadership trait within the CAF. CONCLUSION In an environment where leadership because I told you to will no longer suffice, innovative leadership techniques need to be examined for relevancy and suitableness to fill the current leadership gap. Since transformational leadership, a preferred CAF model, can be linked to charismatic leadership, research and development in charismatic leadership offers a viable direction for change in the CAF. The importance of this shift in leadership development is especially critical in the current multidimensional operating environment because followers who fall outside the leader s chain of command have no current obligation to adhere to direction provided. Methods must be examined that encourage other stakeholder commitment. Leadership models that highlight the salient components of charismatic influence as well as specific tasks and behaviours that could enhance charisma are available. For example, by formulating and articulating a suitable vision and by creating an emotional attachment with followers and stakeholders through empathy and empowerment, leaders can achieve desired levels of success beyond which they could have achieved solely through the transactional leadership approach.

27 25 Charisma is a learnable attribute and formal training should be provided to leaders at all levels of the institution. This training should include how to formulate a personal vision, ways to communicate more effectively and strategies to ensure that follower perceptions remain an important facet with regard to inspiration, motivation and commitment. Notwithstanding the stated pitfalls of charismatic leadership, socialized charismatic behaviours can be encouraged through the constant reminder that institutional values must take precedence over personal agendas. The comparative benefits to charismatic influence can have... profound and extraordinary effects on followers 55 that become ever more important when the followers may no longer fall neatly within the chain of command. Finally, to institutionalize the changes recommended, updates should be done with regard to the current CAF leadership doctrine. Currently, charismatic leadership was significantly undervalued in Conceptual Foundations and a more subjective review would likely encourage CAF leaders to consider its value and importance in current day operations. There is sufficient evidence to suggest that charismatic leadership models would enhance CAF leader effectiveness to start a change process immediately. However, further research and development in this style of leadership in the context of current complexity of military operations is needed to identify yet more effective ways of getting military leaders at all levels to embrace the potential strengths of charismatic leadership. 55 Robert J. House, "A 1976 Theory of Charismatic Leadership..., 1977.

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