1.1 Long-term Conditions That Gave Rise to an Authoritarian State Medium and Short-term Conditions That Gave Rise to an Authoritarian State 6

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1 Preface PREFACE I have taught History for the past 30 years in independent schools in the UK, including teaching the IB for 23 years at Malvern College, as well as teaching on OSC Easter and Summer Revision Courses for the past 20 years. I am never happier than when discussing approaches to key historical questions with students, exchanging ideas about different perspectives that can be taken on the past. So, working on this study guide has been a real pleasure and I have tried to take approaches in writing it that my experience over the past 30 years has shown work best in preparing students to tackle essay questions. I have always enjoyed writing history essays and helping students prepare for essaybased examination papers. For a history student, generally essay-writing is the biggest challenge they will face. Writing a very good or excellent essay requires both a very secure understanding of a lot of historical information but also mastery of a range of essay-writing skills: interpreting the question, planning an effective approach to the question and creating a clear structure, writing an introduction that identifies the themes or factors the essay will explore and the thesis of the essay, developing a clear line of argument and keeping focused on the title, selecting and deploying precisely an appropriate range of supporting evidence, and restating the main argument of the essay in order to provide a strong conclusion. Joe Gauci i

2 Contents CONTENTS List of Features How to Use This Guide Paper 2 Exam Information Essay-writing Advice Chronology of Key Events in Italy: Who s Who in Italy Map of the Kingdom of Italy in 1919 Overview 1 1. The Emergence of the Authoritarian State in Italy Long-term Conditions That Gave Rise to an Authoritarian State Medium and Short-term Conditions That Gave Rise to an Authoritarian State The Impact of the Intervention Crisis (1914 5) The Impact of the First World War on Italy ( ) The Post-War Crisis ( ) The Advent of Democracy and Mass Politics: An End to Trasformismo The Mutilated Victory Economic Crisis and Social Unrest The Biennio Rosso ( ) Long-term and Medium-term Methods Used to Establish an Authoritarian State Mussolini s Political Career up to Mussolini Founds a Left-wing Fascist Movement (1919) Mussolini Moves Fascism to the Right (1920 1) Mussolini Appointed Prime Minister (1922) The March on Rome (October 1922) Short-term Methods Used to Establish an Authoritarian State From Prime Minister to Duce (1922 6) The Matteotti Crisis (1924) Constitutional Rule or Dictatorship? The Question Resolved (January 1925) Maintenance of Power Use of Force and Dealing with Opposition The Communist Party Justice and Liberty (Giustizia e Liberta) Propaganda and Control of the Media Foreign Policy 26 v vi vii viii ix xi xvi iii

3 Contents Italian Cooperation with the International Community Opportunities for Expansion in the 1930s Initial Suspicion of Hitler Mussolini Courts Britain and France: The Stresa Front (1935) Mussolini s Invasion of Abyssinia (1935 6) Mussolini s Intervention in the Spanish Civil War Closer lations with Nazi Germany (1936 onwards) Growing Italian Aggression ( ) Aims and Results of Fascist Social Policies The Corporate State The Church The Arts Women The Battle for Births Youth Education Sport and Leisure Race Aims and Results of Fascist Economic Policies Aims of Economic Policy Laissez-faire (1922 5) Protectionism and Increasing State Intervention The Battle for Grain (1925) The Battle for the Lira (1926) Agriculture Land Reclamation Tackling the Great Depression Economic Successes and Failures 51 Essay-writing Activities: The Rise and Rule of the Italian Fascist Party 53 Glossary 60 Bibliography 64 iv

4 How To Use This Guide HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE This guide contains detailed notes on the emergence and rule of Mussolini s authoritarian state in Italy. It starts with a section of advice on how to approach essay questions. In addition, practice essay questions are included at the end of the book, with one partially completed by me with space for you to finish off with additiona points, and the other, a good answer by a student but with a couple of key areas for improvement that I have highlighted. What parts of the IB History syllabus is this guide useful for? Primarily, this guide is intended to help SL and HL candidates who are studying Mussolini s Italy as a case study for World History Topic 10: Authoritarian States for Paper 2. In addition, it will be of help to HL candidates who are studying Italy as part of HL Option 4: The History of Europe, Section 14: European States in the Inter-war Years ( ) from the syllabus. Feature Boxes This guide includes a range of feature boxes that highlight essential information and help you navigate through the book. You will find the following types of colour-coded box in the main text and in the margins: CROSS-REFERENCE Where else to look in the guide for more information on a topic. KEY INFORMATION Key facts, issues, viewpoints, and terminology. Key terms appear in bold when they are first mentioned in the main text and a definition is provided at the bottom of the page. All key term definitions are collated in the glossary at the end of the book. TIMELINE Helps you to visualise and contextualise important events. KEY PERSPECTIVES An overview of the differing historical perspectives on important events in Italy, vi

5 Overview Overview OVERVIEW Italy was only formed as a unified country in Prior to that it had been made up of a series of independent states and a bloc of territory, Lombardy and Venetia, belonging to the Austrian Empire. The 1859 War between Austria, on the one hand, and Piedmont and France, on the other, launched the unification process, which, by 1861, incorporated most, but not all, of the Italian peninsula. In 1866 Italy fought alongside Prussia against Austria and was rewarded with Venetia. The new Italian state was a constitutional monarchy under the House of Savoy. Initially, the capital was Turin, the capital of Piedmont, which had led the process of unification. However, in 1870 the French troops garrisoning Rome were removed and Rome became the new capital of Italy. The Pope withdrew to the Vatican and, from then until 1929, relations between the Italian state and the Papacy were hostile. The period between 1861 and 1922 is normally referred to as Liberal Italy. During the First World War, Italy at first remained neutral but, after bitter arguments during the Intervention Crisis, Prime Minister Antonio Salandra led Italy into the war on the side of Britain and France in The post-war years were marked by economic and political crises and saw the emergence of the Fascist movement. In 1922 King Victor Emmanuel III appointed Benito Mussolini, the leader and founder of Fascism, prime minister in a coalition government, comprising the Fascists and a range of other parties. Three years later Mussolini established a Fascist dictatorship, which was to last until Mussolini allied Italy to Hitler s Germany and the Second World War led to Mussolini s downfall after Italy s disastrous performance in the war. In 1943, Mussolini was dismissed by King Victor Emmanuel III and arrested, but he was then rescued by German troops and installed as the puppet ruler of the Salò Republic in northern Italy. In 1945 Mussolini was captured and shot by Italian communist partisans. KEY TERMS Vatican: The independent city state, which was an area of Rome governed by the Pope, which did not become part of Italy in 1861 when the Kingdom of Italy was established, nor in 1870 when Rome itself became part of the Kingdom of Italy. Liberal Italy: The period when Italy was ruled under a parliamentary system of government. Intervention Crisis: The crisis preceding Italy joining in the First World War, when Italian politicians were bitterly divided over whether Italy should intervene in the war or not. Fascism: Aggressively nationalistic and authoritarian political movement created by Mussolini. 1

6 HISTORY PAPER 2: AUTHORITARIAN STATES ITALY Economic Crisis and Social Unrest The transition from wartime to peacetime economy proved very painful for Italy. Inflation continued to rise rapidly prices increased by 50% in , hitting those on fixed incomes and those with savings particularly hard. Unemployment rose steeply as 2.5 million Italian soldiers were demobilised and many found no jobs to return home to. Unemployment peaked at 2 million in late In 1921, the US government placed strict restrictions on immigration into the USA; this worsened the plight of the poor in southern Italy, many of who had in the past sought escape in the form of emigration to the USA The Biennio Rosso ( ) The years were marked by huge social unrest and became known as the Biennio Rosso. Radical Socialists hoped to emulate Russia and stage a Bolshevik-style revolution, whilst many middle and upper-class Italians feared for their property in the event of an Italian October Revolution (as the Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia in 1917 is known). KEY ISSUES What were the key features of the Biennio Rosso? Once the war ended many southern peasants, led by Socialist land leagues, seized uncultivated land left fallow by large landowners. The government had inadvertently encouraged this because, after the Italian defeat at Caporetto in October 1917, it had sought to keep up the troops morale by promising land reform. The liberal governments of sanctioned these seizures by passing the Visochi and Falconi Decrees; this failure to protect property rights shocked many of the landed classes. In the North, peasant unions forced landlords to cut rents and increase wages. The trade unions grew enormously; the Socialist CGL s membership increased from 250,000 in 1918 to over 2 million by 1920 and the Catholic unions membership rose from 160,000 to 1,600,000 in the same period. With this increase in size, came an increase in militancy. In 1919, and again in 1920, more than 1 million workers went on strike, culminating in a four-week occupation of the factories in August-September when, in many cities, industrial workers staged sit-ins and took over the factories, setting up factory committees. The occupation eventually was called off, partly because Giolitti, the prime minister, offered some concessions to the workers; this was bitterly resented by many of the middle and upper classes who saw this as bowing to illegal pressure. The occupation s ultimate failure demoralised many of the factory workers and their militancy lessened somewhat in However, labour disputes still remained very disruptive and in August 1922 the Socialists called a general strike. Social unrest led to growing political violence between the Socialists and the Fascists, but the violence was also a consequence of the First World War in that KEY TERMS Demobilised: Soldiers sent back to civilian life at the end of a war. Biennio Rosso: The Two Red Years. A period marked by an upsurge of miltant action by left-wing groups. Bolshevik: Revolutionary Communist political party in Russia under Lenin s leadership. Trade unions: Organisations of workers, representing the workers interests, for example, by pressing employers to grant higher wages. 10

7 3. Aims and Results of Fascist Social Policies TIMELINE The Creation of the Corporate State 1925 Vidoni Palace Pact The Fascist Labour Confederation (Fascist trade unions) and Confindustria (Confederation of Industry), agreed to recognise only each other as representatives of workers and employers in negotiations. Fascist unions were delighted that this excluded the Catholic, Socialist, and Communist unions from labour relations. Employers were pleased that elected factory councils were abolished but they were unhappy at the prospect of binding arbitration in labour disputes Alfredo Rocco s Labour and Anti-Strike Law Confirmed that only syndicates could engage in labour negotiations. Divided the economy into seven branches of activity (for example, agriculture, transport) and created separate syndicates to represent the workers and the employers. Radical Fascists had wanted mixed or integrated syndicates to include employers and workers. Set up special tribunals to provide compulsory arbitration in industrial disputes but, in practice, the tribunals favoured the employers and dealt with very few cases. Banned strikes and employers locking workers out of their factories. This was advantageous to the employers, for they were not subject to state or PNF supervision. In disputes, officials represented the workers, whereas employers represented themselves. A Ministry of Corporations was established, with Mussolini as minister. However, only one corporation really functioned at this stage, the corporation for artists and intellectuals Charter of Labour Affirmed private enterprise. Reaffirmed that strikes and factory councils were illegal. Set out guarantees of workers rights, but these were not honoured Rossoni was sacked as Secretary of the Confederation of Fascist Syndicates. The Confederation was broken up into six confederations of syndicates, thereby weakening their bargaining power. Radicals within the PNF were disappointed The National Council of Corporations was set up In theory, it established representatives of workers, the PNF and employers to regulate the economy. The National Council appeared to have the power to fix wages, settle disputes and advise on the economy. However, in practice the Council did very little The corporate state was finally established (on paper) 22 mixed corporations were set up, each consisting of employers and employees. However, the system continued to favour the employers. The corporations lacked real power. State institutions and big business interests made all the major decisions concerning the economy The Chamber of Fasces and Corporations replaced the Chamber, the lower house of parliament. It had no real power and appears to have been purely a propaganda exercise on Mussolini s part. The Fascist takeover was only partial, Italy became much less of a totalitarian state than Nazi Germany; existing institutions (the monarchy, the Senate) and elites (generals, big landowners, industrialists) remained, for example, the prefects retained a key role in local government and most were not Fascists. Fascist influence over education, particularly the universities, was limited. Just as under the liberal governments, the South was badly neglected by the Fascists, for example, land reclamation schemes and 39

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