CONTENTS. Introduction 10

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2 CONTENTS Introduction 10 Chapter 1: Liberalism 19 Classical Liberalism 20 Thomas Hobbes 22 John Locke 23 Whig and Tory 24 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 26 Liberalism and Democracy 27 Separation of Powers 30 Periodic Elections 30 Rights 31 Classical Liberalism in Action 32 In England 33 The Leveler Movement 37 Bill of Rights (1689) 40 In the United States 41 Thomas Jefferson 46 In France 48 Sansculotte 53 Jacobin Club 55 Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu 57 Liberalism in the 19th Century 58 Europe 58 Revolutions of Latin America 62 Modern Liberalism 71 The Progressive Movement in the United States 71 Populist Movement 73 Interwar Liberalism 78 The Trade Union Movement 80 Postwar Liberalism Through the 1960s 83 Contemporary Liberalism 84 Democratic Party 87 Libertarianism 89 Individualism

3 Chapter 2: Conservatism 92 The Burkean Foundations 96 Club of the Feuillants 100 Maistre and Latin Conservatism 100 Conservatism in the 19th Century 102 Metternich and the Concert of Europe 102 The Retreat of Old-Style Conservatism 104 Conservatism and Nationalism 106 Great Britain 107 United States 109 Christian Democracy in Europe 110 Social Darwinism 111 Conservatism Since the Turn of the 20th Century 112 Great Britain 113 Continental Europe 114 Japan 117 United States 119 Republican Party 122 Conservatism s Prospects Chapter 3: Socialism 126 Origins 127 Diggers 129 Utopian Socialism 130 Other Early Socialists 133 Marxian Socialism 134 Socialism After Marx 135 Christian Socialism 136 Fabian Socialism 137 Syndicalism 138 Industrial Workers of the World 138 Guild Socialism 140 Social Democracy 140 Labour Party 142 Chapter 4: Communism 144 Marxism 145 Karl Marx 146 The Communist Manifesto

4 Dictatorship of the Proletariat 153 First International 154 Bolshevism 156 Vladimir Ilich Lenin 158 Communist Party of the Soviet Union 160 Stalinism 161 Eurocommunism 164 Chinese Communism 165 Mao Zedong 167 Non-Marxian Communism 168 Militant Communist Groups 169 Red Brigades 169 Red Army Faction 170 Shining Path 172 Communist Governments Today 173 North Korea 175 Cuba 177 Vietnam 178 Chapter 5: Anarchism 180 Anarchism as a Movement, Revolutionary Syndicalism 182 Anarchism Around the World 185 Contemporary Anarchism Chapter 6: Fascism 199 National Fascisms 199 Totalitarianism 200 Ku Klux Klan 204 National Socialism 205 Varieties of Fascism 213 Acceptance of Racism 213 Identification with Christianity 215 Support for Germany 216 Neofascism 216 Italy 219 Germany 221 Austria 222 France 224 Russia 226 Serbia 229

5 Croatia 232 Outside Europe 234 Chapter 7: Democratic Movements of the 20th and 21st Centuries 236 The Spread of Democracy in the 20th Century 236 Liberalization and Struggle in Communist Countries 238 Hungarian Revolution 247 Soviet Dissidents: Andrey Sakharov and Yelena Bonner 247 Prague Spring 249 Velvet Revolution and Velvet Divorce 250 Solidarity 252 Fall of the Berlin Wall 255 Other Pro-Democracy Movements 257 Chile 257 Myanmar (Burma) 259 Tonga 261 Problems and Challenges 262 Chapter 8: Nationalism 264 Nationalism in Europe 264 Asian and African Nationalism 266 Regional Varieties of Nationalism 271 Ethnic Movements in Europe 271 Ethnic Cleansing 273 ETA 278 Chinese Nationalism 278 Independence Movements in South Asia 282 Satyagraha 284 The Viet Minh and Vietnamese Independence 286 The Young Turks and Turkish Nationalism 287 Nationalism in the Middle East 289 Anticolonialism in Africa 299 Peronism in Argentina

6 Indigenous Peoples Rights 306 Separatism in Quebec 310 Afrocentrism and Black Nationalism 311 Chapter 9: Religio-Political Movements 314 Liberation Theology 314 The Christian Right 315 Islamist Movements 316 The Iranian Revolution 318 Hezbollah 320 Al-Qaeda 321 Taliban 323 Sikh Political Activism 324 Hindu Political Activism 325 Chapter 10: Social and Ethical Movements 326 Women s Rights 326 The Suffrage Movement and Aftermath 327 The Second Wave of Feminism 331 Abolitionism 334 Civil Rights Movement 337 Pacifism 341 Gay Rights 345 Animal Rights 351 Environmentalism 354 Ecoterrorism 356 The Greens 358 Greenpeace Glossary 363 For Further Reading 366 Index

7 Chapter 1: Liberalism L iberalism is one of the most enduring political doctrines in human history, fostering the rise of representative democracy throughout the world. It takes protecting and enhancing the freedom of the individual to be the central problem of politics. Liberals typically believe that government is necessary to protect individuals from being harmed by others, but they also recognize that government itself can pose a threat to liberty. As the revolutionary American pamphleteer Thomas Paine expressed it in Common Sense (1776), government is at best a necessary evil. Laws, judges, and police are needed to secure the individual s life and liberty, but their coercive power may also be turned against him. The problem, then, is to devise a system that gives government the power necessary to protect individual liberty but also prevents those who govern from abusing that power. The problem is compounded when one asks whether this is all that government can or should do on behalf of individual freedom. Some liberals the so-called neoclassical liberals, or libertarians answer that it is. Since the late 19th century, however, most liberals have insisted that the powers of government can promote as well as protect the freedom of the individual. According to modern liberalism, the chief task of government is to remove obstacles that prevent individuals from living freely or from fully realizing their potential. Such obstacles include poverty, disease, discrimination, and ignorance. The disagreement among liberals over whether government should promote individual freedom rather than merely protect it is reflected to some extent in the different prevailing conceptions of liberalism in the United States and Europe since the late 20th century. In the United States liberalism 19

8 The Britannica Guide to Political and Social 7 7 Movements That Changed the Modern World Part of Franklin Roosevelt s New Deal program involved creating jobs for those who had become unemployed during the Great Depression. The program is considered a prime example of liberalism in action. New York Times Co./Hulton Archive/Getty Images is associated with the welfare-state policies of the New Deal program of the Democratic administration of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, whereas in Europe it is more commonly associated with a commitment to limited government and laissez-faire economic policies. classical LiberaLism Although liberal ideas were not noticeable in European politics until the early 16th century, liberalism has a considerable prehistory reaching back to the Middle Ages and even earlier. In the Middle Ages the rights and responsibilities of the individual were determined by his place in a hierarchical social system that placed great stress upon acquiescence and conformity. Under the impact of the slow commercialization and urbanization of Europe in 20

9 7 Liberalism 7 the later Middle Ages, the intellectual ferment of the Renaissance, and the spread of Protestantism in the 16th century, the old feudal stratification of society gradually began to dissolve, leading to a fear of instability so powerful that monarchical absolutism was viewed as the only remedy to civil dissension. The ambitions of national rulers and the requirements of expanding industry and commerce led gradually to the adoption of economic policies based on mercantilism, a school of thought that advocated government intervention in a country s economy to increase state wealth and power. However, as such intervention increasingly served established interests and inhibited enterprise, it was challenged by members of the newly emerging middle class. This challenge was a significant factor in the great revolutions that rocked England and France in the 17th and 18th centuries most notably the English Civil Wars ( ), the Glorious Revolution ( ), the American Revolution ( ), and the French Revolution (1789). Classical liberalism as an articulated creed is a result of those great collisions. In the English Civil Wars, the absolutist king Charles I was defeated by the forces of Parliament and eventually executed. The Glorious Revolution resulted in the abdication and exile of James II and the establishment of a complex form of balanced government in which power was divided between the king, his ministers, and Parliament. In time this system would become a model for liberal political movements in other countries. The political ideas that helped to inspire these revolts were given formal expression in the work of the English philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. In Leviathan (1651), Hobbes argued that the absolute power of the sovereign was ultimately justified by the consent of the governed, who agreed, in a hypothetical social contract, to obey the 21

10 The Britannica Guide to Political and Social 7 7 Movements That Changed the Modern World Thomas Hobbes (b. April 5, 1588, Westport, Wiltshire, Eng. d. Dec. 4, 1679, Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire) Thomas Hobbes was an influential English philosopher and political theorist whose works are considered important statements of the nascent ideas of liberalism. The son of a vicar who abandoned his family, Hobbes was raised by his uncle. After graduating from the University of Oxford he became a tutor and traveled with his pupil in Europe, where he engaged Galileo in philosophical discussions on the nature of motion. He later turned to political theory, but his support for absolutism put him at odds with the rising antiroyalist sentiment of the time. He fled to Paris in 1640, where he tutored the future King Charles II of England. In Paris he wrote his best-known work, Leviathan (1651), in which he attempted to justify the absolute power of the sovereign on the basis of a hypothetical social contract in which individuals seek to protect themselves from one another by agreeing to obey the sovereign in all matters. Hobbes returned to Britain in 1651 after the death of Charles I. sovereign in all matters in exchange for a guarantee of peace and security. Locke also held a social-contract theory of government, but he maintained that the parties to the contract could not reasonably place themselves under the absolute power of a ruler. Absolute rule, he argued, is at odds with the point and justification of political authority, which is that it is necessary to protect the person and property of individuals and to guarantee their natural rights to freedom of thought, speech, and worship. Significantly, Locke 22

11 7 Liberalism 7 John Locke (b. Aug. 29, 1632, Wrington, Somerset, Eng. d. Oct. 28, 1704, Oates, Essex) John Locke was an English philosopher integral to the development of liberalism. Educated at Oxford, principally in medicine and science, he later became physician and adviser to the future 3rd earl of Shaftesbury ( ). He moved to France, but after Shaftesbury s fall in 1683 he fled to the Netherlands, where he supported the future William III. Locke returned to England after the Glorious Revolution ( ) to become commissioner of appeals, a post he held until his death. In his major philosophical work, Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), he argued that knowledge begins in sensation or introspection rather than in innate ideas, as the philosophers of rationalism held. In Two Treatises of Government (1690), he defended a doctrine of natural rights and a conception of political authority as limited and conditional on the ruler s fulfillment of his obligation to serve the public good. A classic formulation of the principles of political liberalism, this work influenced the American and French revolutions and the Constitution of the United States. thought that revolution is justified when the sovereign fails to fulfill these obligations. Indeed, it appears that he began writing his major work of political theory, Two Treatises of Government (1690), precisely in order to justify the revolution of two years before. By the time Locke had published his Treatises, politics in England had become a contest between two loosely related parties, the Whigs and the Tories. These parties were the ancestors of Britain s modern Liberal Party and Conservative Party, respectively. Locke was a notable Whig, 23

12 The Britannica Guide to Political and Social 7 7 Movements That Changed the Modern World Whig and Tory The Whigs and the Tories were two opposing political parties or factions in England, particularly during the 18th century. Originally Whig and Tory were terms of abuse introduced in 1679 during the heated struggle over the bill to exclude James, duke of York (afterward James II), from the succession. Whig whatever its origin in Scottish Gaelic was a term applied to horse thieves and, later, to Scottish Presbyterians; it connoted nonconformity and rebellion and was applied to those who claimed the power of excluding the heir from the throne. Tory was an Irish term suggesting a papist outlaw and was applied to those who supported the hereditary right of James despite his Roman Catholic faith. The Glorious Revolution ( ) greatly modified the division in principle between the two parties, for it had been a joint achievement. Thereafter most Tories accepted something of the Whig doctrines of limited constitutional monarchy rather than divine-right absolutism. In the early to mid-18th century aristocratic groups and connections regarded themselves as Whigs by sentiment and tradition. The die-hard Tories were discredited as Jacobites, supporters of the exiled Stuart king James II and his descendants after the Glorious Revolution, who sought the restoration of the Stuart heirs to the throne. The reign of George III ( ) brought a shift of meanings to the two words. No Whig Party as such existed at the time, only a series of aristocratic groups and family connections operating in Parliament through patronage and influence. Nor was there a Tory Party, only Tory sentiment, tradition, and temperament surviving among certain families and social groups. Real party alignments began to take shape only after 1784, when profound political issues that deeply stirred public opinion were arising, such as the 24